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OPEN  AIR  GRAPE  CULTURE 


A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  THE 


6nk\i  m^  iiittprt  €viltnxt  af  Hit  Wmt, 


MANUFACTURE  OF  DOMESTIC  WINE. 

DESIGNED  FOE  THE  USE  OF  AMlTEURS  AND  OTHERS 

IN   THE  NORTHERN   AND  MIDDLE  STATES. 

PROFUSELY    ILLUSTRATED   WITH    NEW    ENGRAVINGS    FROM    CAREFULLY 
EXECUTED  DESIGNS,   VERIFIED  BY  DIRECT  PRACTICE. 

BY   JOHX   PHIN, 

AUTHOR   OF   "eSSAT   ON    OPEN    AIR    GRAPE    CULTURE,"   TO    WHICH    WAS   AWARDED 
THE    FIRST    PREMIUM    OF    THE    AMERICAN    INSTITUTE. 

TO   WHICH  IS  ADDED  A   SELECTION   OP 

EXAMPLES  OF  AMERICAN  YINEYARD  PRACTICE, 

AND  A  CAREFULLY  PREPARED  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  CELEBRATED 

THOMERY  SYSTEM  OF  GRAPE  CULTURE. 


JS-ETV  YORK: 

C.  M.  SAXTOIST,  AGRICULTURAL  BOOK  PUBLISHER. 

1864. 


Entbred,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  thj  year  1862,  by 

S.    J.    DEWfiY, 

In  the  Clerk's  OflSce  of  t>u  District  Court  of  Ihe  United  States,  for  the  Northern 
District  of  New  York. 


W.  H.  TiNSON,  Stereotyper 


PKEFACE. 


The  following  work  lias  been  undertaken,  not  so  mucli  in  the 
hope  of  adding  anything  new  to  what  is  already  known  of  the 
culture  of  the  vine,  as  with  a  view  to  collect  the  scattered  infor- 
mation which  exists  on  the  subject  in  periodicals  and  kindred 
works  as  well  as  amongst  practical  men,  and  to  throw  it  into 
such  a  shawls  as  may  prove  useful  to  the  amateur  and  the  vine- 
dresser. 

This  being  our  object,  we  have  endeavored  to  modify  and  adapt 
the  practice  and  principles  of  others  to  our  own  climate  and 
wants,  and  to  simplify  and  explain  the  processes  of  the  profes- 
sional gardener  so  that  he  who  reads  may  practice.  To  this  end 
we  have  in  general  avoided  theoretical  discussions,  and  have 
depended  chiefly  upon  the  practice  of  ourselves  and  others  for 
the  directions  here  laid  down.  For  although  we  know  that 
well  established  principles  are  the  only  sure  foundation  of  all 
right  practice,  this  is  not  the  place  for  discussing  the  theoretical 
grounds  upon  which  these  principles  rest.  A  practical  work 
should  deal  with  facts  and  be  a  guide  to  action. 

As  the  garden  culture  of  the  vine,  at  least  in  the  northern 
States,  differs  from  that  in  the  vineyard  only  in  the  more 
thorough  preparation  of  the  ground  and  the  larger  size  of  the 
plants,  we  have  not  formally  divided  the  work  into  sections  cor- 
responding to  these  two  classes,  as  the  principles  which  govern 
both  are  precisely  alike. 

Where,  however,  some  peculiar  details  of  management  apply 
to  either  we  have  inserted  them  in  the  section  to  which  they 
properly  belong— as  under   the  subject  of  vine  boedees  and 


IV  PREFACE. 

OAEE  OF  OLD  VINES.  A  fuU  account  of  the  Ohio  vineyards  is 
given  in  the  Appendix,  amongst  other  examples  of  American 
practice,  and  the  peculiar  principles  which  regulate  the  manage- 
ment of  grapes  devoted  to  the  production  of  wine  will  be  found 
in  their  appropriate  place,  viz.,  in  the  second  part  of  this  work, 
which  is  specially  devoted  to  that  subject. 

The  varieties  of  the  vine  have  multiplied  so  rapidly  of  late, 
that  it  would  be  impossible  to  give  a  complete  list  even  of  those 
which  have  been  brought  out.  Seeing  then  that  at  best  our 
work  must  be  incomplete  in  this  respect,  we  have  described 
those  only  which  have  been  thoroughly  proved  and  recom- 
mended by  some  well  known  society  or  cultivator.  Of  the 
two  or  three  hundred  varieties  of  American  grapes  of  which 
names  are  to  be  found,  probably  not  more  than  one  in  ten  have 
been  tested  in  localities  differing  greatly  from  the  place  of  their 
origin. 

In  the  execution  of  our  work,  we  believe  tliat  where  we  have 
had  occasion  to  make  use  of  the  labors  of  others,  due  credit  has 
always  been  given ;  and  we  have  also  added  a  list  of  those 
books  which  we  have  most  freely  consulted,  so  that  those  who 
desire  to  make  the  culture  of  the  grape  a  specialty  may  be 
directed  to  original  sources  of  information. 

That  the  culture  of  the  grape  will  ere  long  attain  a  position 
of  which  its  present  condition  affords  little  idea,  we  have  no 
doubt.  Not  only  is  it  one  of  the  most  delicious  and  easily 
raised  fruits,  but  it  also  gives  quick  returns,  so  that  he  who  plants 
a  vine  has  not  to  wait  for  the  better  portion  of  his  lifetime  ere 
he  eats  the  fruit  of  it;  in  three  or  four  years  it  will  yield  an 
ample  vintage. 


CONTENTS, 


PAOB 

Peefaob, iii 

Bibliographical  Note,  List  of  Works  on,  or  relating  to  the  Vine,  .    ix 

Chapter  I.— Natural  and  Civil  History  of  the  Vine,        .        .    17 

II — Choice  of  Soil, 30 

Situation, 36 

Aspect, 39 

Necessity  for  Protection  from  Wind  and  Storms,       .  40 

in. — ^Preparation  of  the  Soil,    .        .        .        .       .        .60 

Draining, 60 

Trenching, 65 

Subsoil  Ploughing, 65 

Manuring, 69 

Terracing, 60 

Construction  of  Vine  Borders  for  Gardens,         .        .  65 

IV. — Planting  the  Vines, 76 

Time  to  Plant 77 

Choice  of  Plants — Distance  Apart,      ....  79 

Marking  off  the  Ground, 80 

Digging  the  Holes, 83 

Taking  up  the  Plants, 84 

Setting  them  out, 86 

Staking, 90 

After-cnltnie, 91 


VI  CONTENTS. 

PAOR 

Chapter  V. — Care  of  Vines  during  the  First,  Second  and  Third 

Years, 92 

Mulching, 95 

Laterals, 96 

"Winter  Protection, 97 

Management  during  the  Second  Year,        .        .        .98 
Management  during  the  Third  Season,        ,        .        .  100 

VI.— Management  of  Fruiting  Vines, 104 

Winter  Protection  of  the  Fruiting  Canes,  .        .        .  105 

Summer  Pruning, .108 

Thinning  the  Berries, 118 

Vn.— Subsequent  Management  of  the  Vine,       .        .        .  120 

VUI. — Theory  and  Practice  of  Pruning  and  Training  as 

applied  to  the  Grape  Vine, 127 

TX — Construction  of  Walls,  Trellises,  Etc.,         .        .  158 
Eflect  of  Walls, 159 

X. — Propagation  of  the  Vine, 175 

Layering, 175 

Cuttings, 180 

Eyes, 186 

Grafting, 187 

Budding, 194 

Seed — Hybridization, 196 

XI. — ^Manures  and  their  Application  to  the  Vine,         .  202 

Sources  of  Manures, 203 

Effects  on  the  Vine, 209 

Liquid  Manure,  Mode  of  Producing  and  Principles  of 
its  Application, 215 

XII.— Diseases  and  Insects, 225 


CONTENTS.  Vll 

PACK 

Chapter  XIII — Methods    of    Hastening    the   Maturity  of  the 

Grape, 231 

Hand  Glasses, 231 

Wall  Glasses, .232 

Eeversing  the  Bunches,        ......  234 

Kinging  or  Girdling, 234 

XIV — Care  OF  Old  Vines, .241 

XV.— To  Preserve  Grapes, 247 

XVI. — Descriptive  List  of  Native  Grapes,  ....  250 

Bland, 250 

Canadian  Chief,    .        .        , 251 

Catawba, 251 

Clinton, 252 

Concord, 252 

Delaware, 253 

Diana, 253 

Elsiuborough, 254 

King, 255 

Hartford  Prolific, 255 

Herbemont, 256 

Isabella, 257 

Logan, 259 

Early  Northern  Muscatine — a  Shaker  Seedling, .        .  260 

Rebecca, 262 

To  Kalon, 264 

Union  Village, 265 

New  Varieties, 265 

Tabular  View  of  the  Size,  Color,  Shape,  Etc.,  Etc.,  of  all  the 
Varieties  of  American  Grapes,  of  which  any  account  can  be 
found 269 


VUl  CONTENTS. 


THE   MANUFACTURE   OF  WINE. 


PAOk 

Extracts  from  Letters  from  Mr.  Jefferson,  late  President  of  the 

United  States, 281 

Manufacture  of  Wine  in  the  South  of  England, 283 

Manufacture  of  Wine  by  Mr.  Longworth  and  others, .        .        .        .285 

Currant  Wine, 293 

Recipe  for  White  Currant  Wine,   .       , 295 

Another  Recipe, 295 

Mr.  Cornell's  Recipe  for  making  Red  Currant  Wine,  .        .        .        .295 

Black  Currant  Wine, 296 

Elderberry  Wine, 296 

Another  Method, 297 

Blackberry  Wine, 297 

Strawberry  or  Raspberry  Wine, 297 

Orange  Wine, 298 

Ginger  Wine, 298 

Currant  Wine, 299 


APPENDIX  I. 


ExAMPjiES  OF  American  Vineyakd  Practice. 

The  Ohio  Yineyard  System, 301 

Dr.  Underhill's  Vineyard, ,  305 

Judge  Conklin's  Vineyard, 311 

McKay's  Vineyard, 316 


CONTENTS.  IX 


APPENDIX   II. 


The  Thomery  System  of  Grape  Culture. 

(This  is  the  famous  system  under  which  the  splendid  Chasselas  de  Fontaine- 
bleau  Grapes  are  produced  ;  it  is  the  method  advocated  by  Dr.  Grant.  The  ac- 
count is  literally  translated  from  Du  Breuil's  Cours  d'Arboriculture,  and  is  the 
ouly  complete  account  which  can  be  found— at  least  so  says  the  Frenchman, 
Rendu,  in  his  "  Ampelographie  Francaise,"  and  he  ought  to  know.) 

PAOR 

Cultivation  of  the  Vine  upon  Trellises,  in  Northern  and  Central 
France,  according  to  the  New  Methods  in  use  at  Thomery,      .  320 

Form  to  be  given  to  the  Trellises, 322 

Horizontal  Cordon  of  Thomery,    .        .        .  •      .        ,        .        .324 

Horizontal  Cordon  of  Charmeux, 328 

•     Vertical  Cordon, 330 

Vertical  Cordon  with  alternate  Shoots, 331 

Cultivation  of  Trellised  Vines  arranged  in  the  form  of  the  Verti- 
cal Cordon  with  opposite  Shoots,       334 

Walls  proper  for  the  Trellis, 334 

Exposure  of  the  Walls, 337 

Propagation  of  the  Vine, 337 

Graft, 339 

Plantation  and  Process  of  Bedding  or  Laying  the  Trellised  Vine — 

First  Year, 340 

Second  Year  of  the  Plantation, 344 

Third  Year, 345 

Method  of  Pruning   adopted  for  the  Vertically  Trellised  Vine 
with  opposite  Shoots — Construction  of  the  Frame — First  Year,  348 

Second  Year, 351 

Third  Year, 353 

Fourth  Year, 364 

Care  necessary  to  the  Lateral  Branches — First  Year,  .  .  .  355 
Disbudding  the  Lateral  Branches  or  Coursons,  ....  358 
Pinching  the  Shoots, 359 

Manner  of  fastening  the  Shoots  in  Summer,  .        .        .        .360 

1* 


CONTENTS. 

FAGS 

Renewal  of  the  Coursons, 360 

Replacement  of  the  Spurs  (Coursons), 361 

Care  of  the  Grapes, 361 

Suppression  of  the  Superfluous  Branches, 361 

Thinning  the  Branches, 361 

Gathering  the  Leaves, 362 

Protections, 363 

Annular  Incision, .  363. 

Renewal  of  the  Trellised  Vine, 363 

Culture  of  Table  Grapes  in  the  Open  Air, 366 

Culture  of  Table  Grapes  in  Southern  France,  .  .  .  ■  .  367 
Diseases  of  the  Vine — Destructive  Animals  and  Insects,  .  .  368 
Gathering  and  Preservation — Fresh  Grapes,  ....  370 
Dried  Gran es— Raisins, 374 


BIBLIOGKAPHY  OF  GRAPE  CULTURE. 


The  subjoined  list  contains  all  the  principal  works  which 
have  been  consulted  in  the  preparation  of  the  following  treatise. 
Having  made  the  study  of  the  subject  a  specialty,  we  have  been 
at  considerable  pains  to  collect  all  the  works  relating  to  vine 
culture  of  which  we  could  find  any  account,  and  although  there 
are  several  important  omissions  in  the  list  given  below,  yet  it  is 
believed  that  their  place  is  tolerably  well  supplied  by  those  of 
which  titles  are  given.  As  our  attention  has  been  chiefly 
directed  to  open  air  culture,  we  have  intentionally  omitted  some 
excellent  English  works.  The  French,  however,  possess  some 
valuable  treatises  which  we  regret  having  been  unable  to  obtain, 
and  a  still  greater  source  of  regret  has  been  that  we  have  been 
unable  to  use  the  many  fine  works  possessed  by  the  Germans. 

It  was  suggested  that  this  list  be  prefaced  with  a  short  article 
on  the  bibliography  of  grape  culture,  or  at  least  that  the  pecu- 
liar features  of  the  works  mentioned  be  indicated.  But  we  found 
ourselves  incompetent  to  the  former,  and  the  latter  would  have 
occupied  a  space  disproportionate  to  its  importance  in  a  prac- 
tical treatise.  It  is  hoped,  however,  that  the  list  given  will  not 
prove  useless  to  those  who  desire  to  extend  their  inquiries  be- 
yond the  narrow  limits  of  the  present  work,  and  from  the  assist- 
ance which  we  ourselves  have  frequently  derived  from  similar 
catalogues,  we  feel  confident  that  this  hope  is  not  ill  founded. 
It  may  be  added,  in  conclusion,  that  many  works  have  been  con- 
sulted and  used  of  which  no  mention  is  made,  simply  from  the 
remoteness  of  their  general  bearing  upon  the  subject.  Thus 
the  figure  of  the  oidium  is  taken  from   Pouillet's  "Traite  de 


XU  BIBLIOGKAPHY   OF   GKAPE   CULTURE. 

Physique,"  and  is,  we  believe,  the  only  thing  in  all  the  three  vo- 
lumes of  that  work  which  at  all  relates  to  vine  culture. 

Having  no  desire  to  preface  our  work  with  a  mere  catalogue 
of  our  private  library  (as  we  have  seen  done  more  than  once), 
no  work  has  been  mentioned  which  it  will  not  repay  the  reader 
to  consult.  On  the  general  subject  of  the  "Theory  of  Horti- 
culture," Lindley's  work  has  been  our  guide  and  our  standard, 
and  for  our  chemical  facts  and  principles  we  have  relied  upon 
the  work  of  Gmelin,  published  by  the  Cavendish  Society  of 
London,  in  twelve  volumes,  as  we  have  always  found  it  most 
full  and  reliable. 

But  in  selecting  a  course  of  reading  with  a  view  to  advance 
his  knowledge  of  grape  culture,  the  student  must  bear  in  mind 
that  so  varied,  complex  and  intimately  connected  are  all  the 
operations  of  nature,  that  the  facts  which  have  a  bearing  upon 
any  portion  of  them,  are  to  be  found  in  books  which  professedly 
treat  of  the  most  diverse  subjects.  Chemistry  and  mechanics 
are  alike  important ;  the  principles  which  govern  the  relations 
of  heat,  light,  and  electricity,  exert  a  more  or  less  important 
influence  on  all  vegetation,  and  he  who  would  be  fully  master  of 
the  subject,  must  aim  at  an  extent  of  knowledge  only  to  be 
found  in  the  widest  range  of  scientific  reading  and  experiment. 

Abercrombie,  John,  Practical  Gardener.    London. 

Adlum,  John,  Memoir  on  the  Cultivation  of  the  Vine  in  America.  Wash- 
ington, 1828. 

Allen,  J.  F.,  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Culture  of  the  Grape.  New  York, 
1858. 

the  same,  Boston,  1849. 

American  Cyclopaedia.    New  York,  1858,  continued. 

American  Pomological  Society,  Transactions  1852,  1854,  1856,  1858. 

Barry,  Sir  Ed.,  Observations  on  Wines.    4to.  London,  1775. 
Barry,  P.,  Fruit  Garden.    New  York,  1855. 
Bernay,  A.  J.,  Household  Chemistry.     London,  1854. 
Blodgett,  Lorin,  Climatology  of  the  United  States.    Philadelphia,  1857. 
Bordeaux  Wine  and  Liquor  Dealer's  Guide.     New  York,  1851. 
Boussingault,  J.  B.,  Rural  Economy.     London,  1855. 
Bradley,  R.,  Survey  of  Ancient  Husbandry  and  Gardening.    Loudon, 
1725. 


BIBLIOGEAPUY    OF    GUAPE   CULTURE.  XIU 

Bridgeman,  Thomas,  Young  Gardener's  Assistant.    New  York,  1857. 
Brown,  J.  D.,  Sylva  Americana.     Boston,  1832. 

Trees  of  America.     New  York,  1851. 

Field  Book  of  Manures.    New  York,  1855. 

Buchannan,  R.,  Culture  of  the  Grape  and  Wine  Making.     Cincinnati,  185-, 
Buist,  R.,  Management  of  the  Grape  Vine.     New  York,  1856. 

Busby,  James,  Visit  to  Vineyards  of  France  and  Spain.    New  York,  1835. 

Carnell,  P.  P.,  Treatise  on  Family  Wine  Making.     London,  1814. 
Carpenter,  W.  B.,  Use  and  Abuse  of  Alcoholic  Liquors.     Philadelphia, 

1855. 
Chaptal,  C,  Traite  sur  la  Vigne  et  I'Art  de  faire  Yin.     2  vols.,  Paris,  1801. 

The  same,  translated  in  Philosophical  Magazine. 

Chemistry  applied  to  Agriculture.     Hartford,  1854. 

Chorlton,  Wm.,  American  Grape  Grower's  Guide.     New  York,  1856. 

The  Cold  Grapery.    New  York,  1853. 

Cole,  S.  W.,  American  Fruit  Book.  Boston,  1849. 
Coleman,  Henry,  European  Agriculture.  Boston. 
Country  Gentleman.     Albany  {published  weekly). 

Dana,  S.  L.,  Muck  Manual.    New  York,  1856. 
Da.vy,  Sir  H.,  Agricultural  Chemistry.     London,  1827. 
Davy,  John,  Ionian  Islands.     London,  1842. 

De  Bow,  J.  B.  D.,  Industrial  Resources  of  South  and  West.    New  Oi- 
lcans, 1852. 

Review.    New  Orleans. 

D«5candolle,  N.  P.,  Physiologic  Vegetale.     3  vols.  Paris,  1832. 
Dempsey,  G.  D.,  On  the  Drainage  of  Districts  and  Lands.    London,  1854. 
Don,  George,  General  System  of  Gardening  and  Botany.    4  vols.,  4to., 

London,  1838. 
Donaldson,  Treatise  on  Clay  Lands  and  Loamy  Soils.    London,  1854. 
Donovan,  Michael,  Treatise   on  Domestic  Economy  and  Wine  Making. 

London,  1830. 
Downing,  A.  J,,  Fruits  and  Fruit  Trees  of  America.    New  York,  1853. 

the  same,  revised  by  C.  Downing.     New  York,  1857. 

Du  Breuil.  Cours  Elementaire  d' Arboriculture.     Paris,  1857. 

Elliot,  F.  R.,  Fruit  Book.    New  York,  1854. 

Western  Fruit  Book.    New  York,  1859. 

Ellis,  Robert,  Chemistry  of  Creation.     London,  1850. 
Encyclopaedia  Americana.    Philadelphia,  1834. 
Eiicyclopsedia  Britannica.     8th  edition,  Edinburgh,  1852-60. 
English  Cyclopaedia.     London,  1854. 


XIV  bibliogeaphy  of  grape  culture. 

Fentwanger,  Lewis.    Fermented  Liquors.    New  York,  1858. 

Fitch,  Asa,  Report  on  the  Insects  of  the  State  of  New  York. 

Flint,  C,  Agriculture  of  Massachusetts.     Boston,  1858. 

Floy,  M.,  Guide  to  Orchard  and  Fruit  Garden.    New  York,  1852. 

Forsyth,  Wm.,  Culture  and  Management  of  Fruit  Trees.     London,  1802. 

French,  Art  of  Distillation  and  Manufacture  of  Liquors.    London,  1657. 

Gardener's  Chronicle.     19  vols.,  London,  1841,  continued. 

Gardener's  Monthly.     Philadelphia,  1859,  continued. 

Gardener's  Monthly  Volume.     London,  1849. 

Genesee  Farmer.     Rochester,  N.  Y.  {published  monthly.) 

Gmelin,  Leopold,  Handbook  of  Chemistry.     12  vols.,  London,  1848-58. 

Graham,  Thomas,  Elements  of  Chemistry.     2  vols.,  London,  1858. 

Gray,  Asa,  Manual  of  Botany.     New  York,  1858. 

Systematic  and  Structural  Botany.    New  York,  1858. 

Guide  to  Importers  and  Purchasers  of  Wines,  with  a  Topographical  Ac- 
count of  all  the  known  Vineyards  in  the  World.    London,  1828. 

Hannan,  John,  Economy  of  Waste  Manures.     London,  1844. 
Harris,  Joseph,  Rural  Annual,  1857,  8,  9.     Rochester,  N   Y. 
Harris,  T.  W.,  Report  on  the  Insects  o^  Massachusetts  injurious  to  Vege- 
tation.    Cambridge,  1841. 
Hoare,  Clement,  Treatise  on  the  Grape  Vine.     New  York,  1850. 
Homans,  J.  S.,  Cyclopaedia  of  Commerce.    New  York,  1858. 
Hooker,  Journal  of  Botany.    4  vols.,  London. 
Horticulturist,  1846-1859. 
Hovey,  C.  M.,  Magazine  of  Horticulture. 

Jacques,  Geo.,  Practical  Treatise  on  Fruit  Trees.    Worcester,  1849. 
Johnson,  Geo.  W.,  The  Gardener.     3  vols.,  London,  1849. 

>-    Dictionary  of  Modern  Gardening,  edited  bv  Landreth. 

Philadelphia,  1857. 
Principles  of  Practical  Gardening.    London,  1845. 


Johnston,  James  F.  W.,  Lectures  on  the  Applications  of  Chemistry  and 
Geology  to  Agriculture.     New  York,  1858. 

Chemistry  of  Common  Life.     2  vols.,  New  York,  1855. 

Notes  on  America.     2  vols.,  Boston,  18 — . 

Johnson,  S.  W.,  The  Culture  of  the  Vine.     New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  1806. 
JuUien,  Topographie  de  tons  les  Vignobles  connus.     Paris,  18] G. 

Kendrick,  Wm,,  New  American  Orchardist.     Boston,  1848. 
KoUar,  V.,  Treatise  on  Insects  injurious  to  Farmers  and  Gardeners.    Lon 
don,  1840. 


BIBLIOGEAniT    OF   GRAPE    CULTURE.  XV 

Ladrey,  M.  C,  Cliimie  appliqu^e  k  la  Viticulture  et  a  I'CEnologle.    Paris, 

1857. 
Liebig,  J.,  Complete  Works.     Philadelphia,  1856. 

• Letters  on  Modern  Agriculture.    New  York,  1859. 

Liebig  and  Kopp,  Annual  Report  on  the  Progress  of  Chemistry  and  the 

allied  Sciences.     London,  1847-1850. 
Lindley.  Theory  and  Practice  of  Horticulture.     2d  edition,  London,  1855. 

the  same,  edited  by  A.  J.  Downing.    New  York,  1852. 

Loudon  J.  C,  Encyclopaedia  of  Gardening.     London,  1850. 

■ Gardener's  Magazine.     16  vols. 

Manures,  Practical  Treatise  on.    Society  for  Diffusion  of  Useful  Know- 
ledge.    London,  1830. 
McCulloch,  Remarks  on  the  Art  of  Making  Wine.    London,  1817. 
Mcintosh,  Charles,  Book  of  the  Garden.     2  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1855. 
McMahon,  Bernard,  American  Gardener's  Calendar.     Philadelphia,  1859. 

the  same,  Philadelphia,  1806. 

McMullen,  Thomas,  Hand-book  of  Wines.    New  York,  1853. 
Meteornlogi-^al  Observations  made  in  the  State  of  New  York  from  1826 

to  1850.     Albany,  1855. 
Meteorological  Register,  State  of  New  York. 
Miller,  Philip,  Gardener's  Dictionary.     Large  folio,  1759. 

the  same,  4  vols.,  folio,  1807. 

Morewood,  Samuel,  Essay  on  Meliorating  Liquors.    London,  1824. 
Mulder,  C.  J.,  Chemistry  of  Wine.     London,  1857. 

Chemistry  of  Animal  and  Vegetable  Physiology.    Edin- 
burgh, 1849. 

Muspratt,  Sheridan,  Chemistry  applied  to  Arts  and  Manufactures.    Glas- 
gow, 1858. 

Natural  History  of  the  State  of  New  York.    19  volumes,  Albany. 
Neil,  Patrick,  Practical  Fruit,  Flower  and  Kitchen  Gardener's  Com- 
panion.    New  York,  1856. 
N  orthern  Fruit  Culturist. 

Odcvrt,  Comte,  Ampelographie  Universelle.    Paris.  1854. 
Manuel  de  Vigneron. 

Patent  Office  Reports.     Washington,  D.  C,  1837-1858. 
Pereira,  Jonathan,  Treatise  on  Food  and  Diet.     London,  1844. 
Perzoz,  Nouveau  Systeme  de  Culture  de  la  Vigne.     Paris. 
Philosophical  Magazine  (Tilloch's).     97  vols,  London,  1798,  continued 
Prince,  W.  R.,  Treatise  on  the  Vine.     New  York,  1830. 

Treatise  on  Horticulture.    New  York,  1828. 

Pomological  Manual.    New  York,  1832. 


XVi  BIBLIOGKAPHY    OF    GKAPE   CULTURE. 

Quarterly  Journal  of  Science  and  Art.     30  volumes,  London,  1816-1830. 

Redding,  Cyrus,  History  and  Description  of  Modern  Wines.    London, 

1S51. 
Reemelin,  C,  Vine  Dresser's  Manual.    New  York,  1856. 
Register  of  Rural  Affairs.     Albany,  L.  Tucker,  1855-1859. 
Rendu,  Ampelographie  Frangaise.     Paris,  1857. 
Rural  New  Yorker  {weekly).     Rochester,  N.  Y. 

Schenck,  P.  A.,  Gardener's  Text  Book.     Boston,  1852. 

Schow,  J.  F.,  Earth,  Plants  and  Man.     London,  1852. 

Silliman,  B.,  American  Journal  of  Science  and  Art.  New  Haven,  Ct., 
1819-1858. 

Smeed,  Wine  Merchant's  Manual.     London,  1828. 

Skinner,  John  S.,  Journal  of  Agriculture.     3  volumes.  New  York,  1848. 

Speechly,  William,  Treatise  on  the  Culture  of  the  Vine,  and  the  forma- 
tion of  Vineyards.     4to.,  London,  1790. 

the  same,  8vo.,  1821. 

Solly,  Edward,  Rural  Chemistry.     Philadelphia,  1852. 

Somerville,  Mary,  Physical  Geography.     Philadelphia,  1853. 

Stockhard,  Julius  C,  Chemical  Field  Lectures.     London,  1858. 

Spooner,  Alden,  The  Cultivation  of  American  Grape  Vines.  Brooklyn, 
1846. 

Thayer,  Albert,  Principles  of  Agriculture.     London,  1845. 
Thomas,  J.  J.,  Fruit  Culturist.     Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  1847. 

the  same.  New  York,  1857. 

Transactions  American  Philosophical  Society.    Philadelphia,  1789. 
Transactions  of  Society  for  Encouragement  of  Arts  and  Manufactures. 

London,  1783-1850. 
Transactions  of  New  York  Agricultural  Society.     Albany,  1842-1858. 
Transactions  of  New  York  Institute.     Albany,  1841-1858. 
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1840. 
Tucker,  L.,  Register  of  Rural  Affairs.     Albany,  1855-1859. 
Tull,  Jethro.  Horse  Hoeing  Husbandry.    London  1829. 

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1857. 
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Watson,  American  Home  Garden.    New  York,  1859. 

Webster,  Encyclopaedia  of  Domestic  Economy.    New  York,  1856. 


OPEN  AIR  GRAPE  CULTURE, 


CHAPTER  I. 

NATUEAL   AND   CIVIL  HISTORY   OF  THE   VINE. 

Peofajste  history  readies  not  back  to  the  time  when 
man  first  planted  a  vineyard  and  made  wine,  and 
when  we  leave  the  sacred  records,  its  first  culture  is 
shrouded  in  allegories,  myths  and  fables. 

The  native  country  of  the  vine  cannot  be  well  ascer- 
tained. It  occurs  wild  in  Greece,  Italy  and  even  in 
the  south  of  France.  In  Mingrelia,  Georgia  and  the 
regions  between  Caucasus  and  Ararat  ahd  Taurus,  it 
flourishes  in  extreme  vigor  and  great  abundance. 
And  that  it  is  indigenous  to  America,  also,  there  can 
be  no  doubt,  the  apocryphal  stories  about  its  intro- 
'  duction  by  Sir  W.  Raleigh  to  the  contrary  notwith- 
standing. 

Records  of  its  culture  are  found  in  most  of  the 
poems  and  sculptures  of  antiquity.     The  shield  of 


18  OPEN    AIK    GEAPE   CULTUKE. 

Achilles  represented  a  vine-gathering,  and  Herodotus 
and  Theophrastus  speak  of  the  culture  of  the  vine  in 
Egypt ;  and  on  the  very  oldest  Greek  tombs  are 
found  pictures  representing  the  vine  harvest.  Pliny 
enters  fully  into  the  natural  history  of  the  vine,  and 
describes  a  variety  with  berries  shaped  like  the 
finger,*  while  the  second  book  of  Virgil's  (oreorgics 
forms  no  mean  treatise  on  practical  viticulture. 

The  generic  name  of  the  vine  {vitis)  is  derived,  ac- 
cording to  some  authors,  from  the  Latin  vincire  to 
bind  ;  according  to  others  it  comes  from  viere,  to  bend, 
alluding  to  the  flexibility  of  its  branches.     Both  these 

*  Most  of  the  authors  who  have  noticed  this  variety,  suppose  it  to 
have  been  lost,  but  we  have  received  from  John  Kolber,  Esq.,  of  New 
York,  shps  of  a  vine  imported  by  him  from  Hungary,  the  fruit  of 
which  is  described  as  being  an  inch  and  a  half  long  and  half  an  inch 
in  diameter — a  form  which  might  easily  be  described  by  an  imagina- 
tive writer  as  resembling  a  finger.  In  fact  the  native  name  is  Keckse^ 
csocs  or  Goats  teats — an  idea  similar  to  that  of  the  old  philosopher, 
though  not  quite  so  elegant.  We  find  also  in  several  catalogues 
grapes  called  finger-grapes — synonyms  of  which  are  Cornichon  Blanc, 
Cucumber  Grape,  Bee  d'Oiseau  (Bird's  beak),  Teta  de  Vacca  (Cow's 
teats),  Doigts  Donzelle,  etc.,  etc.  Mr.  Kolber  has  made  earnest  and 
praiseworthy  efforts  to  introduce  the  hardier  varieties  of  the  vine  from 
the  hills  of  Hungary,  and  we  are  happy  to  learn  that  thus  far,  the 
results  are  exceedingly  promising.  It  will  take  several  years,  however, 
to  decide  whether  or  not  any  foreign  variety  can  be  grown  with 
success  in  this  country,  as  most  imported  plants  do  well  for  a  few 
years. 


NATDEAL   AND   CIVIL    HISTORY   OF   THE   VINE.  19 

Latin  Avt>rds,  however,  are  derived  from  a  Greek  word 
signifying  to  bind.  Dr.  Whittaker,  in  a  work  published 
in  1638,  entitled,  "The  Tree  of  Human  Life,  or  the 
Blood  of  the  Grape,"  expresses  his  opinion  that  the 
name  vinum  is  derived  a  vi  from  its  strength,  or,  per- 
haps quasi  dimnum^  because  it  is  a  species  of  the  tree 
of  life  in  Paradise. 

The  species  of  the  genus  vitis  are  numerous,  though 
botanists  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  distinctive  differ- 
ences, especially  as  between  the  European  and  Ameri- 
can sorts.  In  France,  Chaptal,  when  Minister  of  the 
Literior,  caused  1,400  different  varieties  of  the  vine  to 
be  collected  in  the  garden  of  the  Luxembourg,  and 
under  his  direction  M.  Champagny  described  as  dis- 
tinct 550  diff'erent  kinds.  Four  American  species 
have  been  usually  numbered  (some  authors  describe 
eight),  though  the  varieties,  more  or  less  distinctly 
marked,  probably  exceed  300.  To  the  number  of  the 
latter,  however,  there  is  no  limit,  as  every  seed  may 
produce  a  new  variety. 

The  vine  lives  to  a  great  age  and  attains'  a  great 
size.  Pliny  mentions  a  vine  which  had  lived  for  600 
years,  and  in  Italy,  vineyards  have  continued  in 
bearing  for  300  years,  while  in  some  parts  of  that  ^ 
country,  a  vineyard  of  100  years  is  still  accounted 
young. 

Its  size,  whethei'  we  regard  the  European  or  Ame- 


20  OPEN   AEB   GEAPE   CULTrRE. 

rican  varieties,  is  often  very  great.  Speechly  (describes 
and  figures  a  vine  trained  against  a  row  of  houses  in 
I^orthallerton,  Yorkshire,  which,  covered  a  space  of 
one  hundred  and  thirty  seven  square  yards,  and  had 
a  stem  three  feet  eleven  inches  *in  circumference  at  a 
short  distance  from  the  ground.  No  work  on  the 
grape  vine  would  be  complete  without  a  mention  of 
the  great  Hampton  Court  vine,  from  which  George 
the  Third  once  directed  his  gardener  to  cut  one  hun- 
dred dozen  bunches  of  grapes,  if  so  many  were  on  the 
vine,  and  present  them  to  the  players  of  Drury-lane 
Theatre,  who  had  greatly  pleased  him.  The  gardener 
not  only  cut  off  this  number,  but  sent  word  to  the 
king  that  he  could  cut  off  as  many  more  without 
entirely  stripping  the  vine.  This  vine  was  planted  in 
1769  and  has  a  stem  fourteen  inches  in  girth,  one 
branch  extending  nearly  200  feet. 

In  America,  too,  very  large  vines  are  to  be  found. 
The  following  is  clipped  from  the  "  Alta  Californian :" 

"  At  Monticito,  four  miles  from  Santa  Barbara, 
there  is  a  grape  vine,  probably  the  largest  in  the 
world.  Its  dimensions  and  yield  would  be  incredible, 
were  it  not  that  my  informant  is  a  man  of  veracity, 
and  he  spoke  from  personal  observation.  It  is  a  single 
vine,  the  main  stock  being  ten  feet  in  circumference. 
It  is  trained  upon  a  trellis  sixty  feet  in  diameter. 
My    informant  with   another  person   counted  7000 


NATUEAL   AND    CIVIL   HISTORY    OF   THE   VIKE.         21 

buHclies,  and  the  estimated  yield  was  18,000  pounds 
of  fruit.  Can  this  be  beaten  ?  The  only  thing 
that  surprised  me  in  the  relation  of  my  friend  was 
that  any  person  in  Santa  Barbara  should  have 
displayed  the  energy  necessary  to  build  the  trellis 
for  this  noble  vine." 

In  the  "  Horticulturist  "  for  October,  1858,  a  vine 
growing  near  Burlington,  New  Jersey,  is  described 
as  follows :  "  In  May  last  it  was  measured  with  the 
following  result :  Two  feet  from  the  ground  it  mea- 
sured 6  feet,  2i  inches  in  girth  ;  four  feet  high  it  is 
about  6  inches  less ;  it  there  divides  into  two  branches, 
the  largest  of  w^hich  is  3  feet,  3  inches  in  girth,  and 
the  smallest '  is  3  inches.  The  largest  of  the  trees 
which  the  vine  covers  is  10  feet  in  circumference  at 
two  feet  from  the  ground.  The  vine  is  very  much 
decayed,  but  still  puts  forth  leaves  and  young  shoots. 
It  has  never  borne  a  grape  in  the  memory  of  a  lady 
now  98  years  old  and  who  has  lived  her  long  life 
within  sight,  or  nearly  so,  of  this  gigantic  production, 
and  to  whom  it  was  a  w^onder  in  her  youth.  The 
largest  tree  is  a  black  oak,  the  others  are  black,  or 
sour  gum.  On  pacing  the  circumference  covered  by 
the  branches,  it  was  found  to  exceed  100  feet. 

"  This  vine  grows  near  a  springy  soil,  or  upland,  its 
roots,  no  doubt,  penetrating  to  the  water.  May  not 
this  teach  us  a  lesson,  to  give  the  rootlets,  wherever 


22  OPEN   Am    GRAPK    CULTURE. 

it  is  possible,  access  to  a  spring,  or  running  water  ? 
It  may  be  a  question,  too,  whether  we  do  not  cut  our 
vines  too  much.  I  have  observed  frequently  in 
England  that  a  whole  house  was  devoted  to  a  single 
vine,  generally  of  the  Black  Hamburgh,  and  I  think 
they  uniformly  bore  the  finest  grapes.  To  carry  a 
single  vine  over  a  large  grapery  would,  of  course,  re- 
quire years  of  judicious  trimming  and  management." 

The  bunches  and  berries  also  have  been  known  to 
attain  a  very  great  size.  In  the  south  of  France 
instances  are  known  of  bunches  attaining  a  weight 
of  eight  or  ten  pounds  ;  travellers  in  Syria  mention 
bunches  weighing  17  lbs.  ;  and  we  all  rememi)er  the 
enormous  clusters  which  the  Jewish  spies  brought 
back  from  the  promised  land.  Even  at  the  present 
day  the  gra])es  of  Damascus  frequently  weigh  25 
pounds  to  the  bunch. 

With  all  the  vigor  and  fruitfulness  evinced  by 
such  instances  it  is  no  wonder  that  the  culture  of  the 
vine  should  prove  profitable  and  certain.  At  the 
meeting  of  the  Fruit  Growers'  Society  for  western 
New  York,  held  in  the  city  of  Rochester  in  1859, 
S.  II.  Ainsworth  made  some  statements  as  to  the 
actual  products  of  several  vineyards,  showing  that 
from  $1000  to  $1500  had  been  realized  from  an  acre  • 
of  Isabella  grapes.  Mr.  Eush,  of  East  Bloomfield, 
had  100  vines  on  one-third  of  an  acre,  from  wdiich  he 


NATURAL    AND    CIVIL    HISTORY    OF   THE   VINE.  23 

picked  4:000  lbs.,  which  he  sold  for  $500,  or  at  the  rate 
of  12J  cts.  per  pound.  ISTone  reported  a  less  profit 
than  $500  per  acre. 

From  the  very  first  settlement  of  America  the 
vine  attracted  the  attention  of  the  colonists,  and 
efibrts  were  made  both  to  introduce  the  finer  Euro- 
pean varieties  and  to  cultivate  the  native  sorts.  Even 
as  early  as  1564,  wine  was  made  from  the  native 
grape  in  Florida,  though,  of  course,  in  small  quantity. 

The  earliest  attempt  to  establish  a  vineyard  in  the 
British  North  American  colonies  was  by  the  "  Lon- 
don Compciuy"  in  Virginia  prior  to  1620.  By  tlie 
year  163*),  the  prospects  were  sufiiciently  favorable 
to  warrant  the  importation  of  several  French  vigne- 
rons^  who,  it  was  alleged,  ruined  them  by  bad 
management.  Wine  was  also  made  in  Virginia  in 
1647,  and  in  1651  premiums  were  ofiered  for  its  pro- 
duction. On  the  authority  of  Beverley,  who  wrote 
prior  to  1722,  there  were  vineyards  in  that  colony 
which  produced  750  gallons  a  year. 

In  1661,  Col.  Eichard  I^icolls,  the  first  English 
governor  of  i^ew  York,  granted  to  Paul  Eichards  of 
the  city  of  New  York  the  privilege  of  making  and 
selling  wine  free  of  all  duty  or  impost,  Eichards  hav- 
ing been  the  first  to  enter  upon  the  culture  of  the 
vine  on  a  large  scale.  It  was  also  enacted  that  every 
person   who   should   durinsj  the    succeeding    thirty 


24  OPEN   AIR   GEAPE   CULTURE. 

years  set  out  a  vineyard  should  pay  to  Eichards  five 
shillings  for  every  acre  of  vines  so  set  out.  We  have 
been  unable,  however,  to  find  any  account  of  his  suc- 
cess or  failure,  and  the  probability  is,  that  after  a 
short  time  the  enterprise  was  abandoned.  A  gentle- 
man in  Hoboken,  also,  had  a  fine  vineyard  which 
after  a  little  time  fell  into  decay. 

Beauchamp  Plantagenet,  in  his  "Description  of 
the  Province  of  'New  Albion,"  published  in  London 
in  1648,  states  that  the  English  settlers  in  Uvedale 
(now  Delaw^are)  had  vines  running  on  mulberry  and 
sassafras  trees,  and  that  there  Avere  four  kinds  of 
grapes.  "The  first  is  the  Tholouse  Muscat,  sweet 
scented ;  the  second,  the  great  fox  and  thick  grape, 
after  five  moneths  reaped,  being  boyled,  and  salted, 
and  well -fined  is  a  strong  red  Xeres;  the  third,  a 
light  claret ;  the  fourth,  a  white  grape,  creeps  on  the 
land  maketh  a  pure,  gold-colored  wine.  Tennis  Pale, 
the  Frenchmen,  of  these  four  made  eight  sorts  of  ex- 
cellent w4ne ;  and  of  the  Muscat,  acute  boyled,  that 
the  second  draught  will  fox  (intoxicate)  a  reasonable 
pate  four  moneths  old ;  and  here  may  be  gathered 
and  made  two  hundred  tun  in  the  vintage  moneth, 
and  replanted  will  mend." 

In  1683,  William  Penn  attempted  to  establish  a 
vineyard  near  Philadelphia,  but  without  success. 
The  same  result  attended  the  efforts  of  Andrew  Dore 


NATTTRAI.    AND   CIVIL   HISTORY   OF   THE   VINE.  25 

in  1685,  but  after  some  years,  Mr.  Tasker,  of  Mary- 
land, and  Mr.  Antil,  of  Shrewsbury,  N.J.,  seem  to  have 
succeeded  to  a  certain  extent.  Mr.  Antil  wrote  an 
excellent  article  on  the  culture  of  the  grape  and  the 
manufacture  of  wine,  whieli  may  be  found  in  the  first 
volume  of  the  "  Transactions  of  the  American  Philoso- 
phical Society,"  published  in  1771.  In  this  article, 
Mr.  Antil  describes  only  foreign  varieties,  from 
which  it  is  to  be  inferred  that  he  cultivated  them 
chiefly,  if  not  solely. 

In  1769,  the  French  settlers  in  Illinois  made  one 
hundred  and  ten  hogsheads  of  strong  wine  from 
native  grapes. 

In  1793,  Peter  Leganx,  a  French  gentleman,  ob- 
tained of  the  legislature  of  Pennsylvania  the  incor- 
poration of  a  company  for  cnltivating  the  vine.  They 
purchased  a  farm  at  Spring- mill,  Montgomery  county, 
thirteen  miles  from  Philadelphia,  on  the  Schuylkill. 
For  one  year  only  were  prospects  favorable ;  divisions 
and  dissensions  arose ;  the  stockholders  sold  out  in 
disgust,  and  the  vineyard  went  to  ruin. 

At  Harmony,  near  Pittsburg,  a  vineyard  of  ten 
acres  w^as  planted  and  cultivated  by  Frederick  Rapp 
and  his  associate  from  Germany.  They  afterward 
removed  to  another  Harmony  in  Indiana,  on  the  east 
bank  of  the  Wabash,  where  they  continued  the  culti- 
vation  of  wine  and  silk  for  many  years. 
2 


26  OPEN   AIK   GRAPE   CULTURE. 

A  Swiss  colony  settled  about  1Y90  in.  Jessamin 
county,  Kentucky,  and  raised  a  fund  often  thousand 
dollars  for  the  express  purpose  of  forming  a  vineyard. 
Their  first  attempts  failed,  they  having  cultivated  the 
foreign  vine.  In  1801,  they  removed  to  a  spot  which 
they  called  Yevay,  in  Switzerland  County,  Indiana, 
on  the  Ohio  River,  forty-iive  miles  below  Cincinnati. 
Here  they  planted  native  vines  and  met  with  some 
success.  But,  after  forty  years'  experience,  they  con- 
sider our  climate  and  soil  inferior  to  those  of  Switzer- 
land, as  they  claim  that  they  can  there  make  a  gallon 
of  wine  from  ten  pounds  of  grapes  while  here  twelve 
pounds  are  required.  Their  vineyards  have  now,  we 
believe,  nearly  disappeared. 

But  the  great  turning  point  of  vine  culture  in 
America  was  when  the  Catawba  grape  was  intro- 
duced by  Major  Adlum,  of  Georgetown,  D.  C,  who 
considered  that  in  so  doing  he  conferred  a  greater  be- 
nefit upon  the  American  nation  than  he  would  have 
done  by  paying  off  the  national  debt. 

Yio  could  have  wished  to  give  an  accurate  view  of 
the  present  state  of  the  vine  culture  of  this  country, 
but  the  best  works  which  we  have  been  able  to  con- 
sult are  very  imperfect  in  this  respect,  and  we  believe 
that  wx  have  examined  all  the  more  important  ones. 
Want  of  time  has  prevented  us  from  instituting  a 
special   correspondence    on   this   subject.      We   can 


NATURAL    AND    CIVIL    HISTORY    OF   THE   VINE.         27 

therefore  only  say  that  it  never  at  any  period  pre- 
sented a  more  flourishing  aspect  than  it  does  at  the 
present  day. 

Of  the  future  prospects  of  grape  culture,  of  its 
extent,  and  of  its  influences,  it  would  be  difficult  to 
speak.  But  we  feel  assured  that,  whether  in  the 
form  of  wine  or  of  fruit,  the  produce  of  the  vine  can- 
not fail  to  do  much  good  in  this  country — not  the 
least  of  its  benefits  being  that  it  will  afford  those  with 
small  capital  an  easy  and  pleasant  mode  of  securing 
a  competency. 

Another  point  in  this  aspect  of  grape  culture,  and 
one  in  which  we  have  strong  confidence  and  ardent 
hope,  is  the  employment  which  it  promises  to  afi'ord 
to  women.  "We  are  none  of  those  who  would  desire 
to  see  woman  rendered  independent  of  man,  for  we 
well  know  to  what  a  miserable  condition  man  would 
come  if  rendered  independent  of  woman,  and  it  is  a 
poor  rule  that  will  not  work  both  ways. 

But  w^e  cannot  shut  our  eyes  to  the  fact  that  there 
are  vast  multitudes  of  women  whose  labor  receives 
no  adequate  remuneration — wdio  make  shirts  at  the 
rate  of  five  cents  apiece,  and  then  often  get  cheated 
out  of  their  pay.  ]N"ow,  if  some  of  our  large-hearted, 
as  well  as  large-worded,  philanthropists  would  pro- 
cure a  few  acres  of  land  in  some  proper  locality,  and 
after  having  it  well  trenched  or  subsoil  ploughed, 


28  OPEN   Am   GRAPE   CULTUPvE. 

would  let  it  out  in  half,  or  even  quarter  acre  lots  to 
industrious  women  with  a  view  to  their  establishing 
vineyard  plots,  we  think  that  after  the  first  two  years 
such  an  allotment  of  half  an  acre  ought  to  yield 
its  tenant  from  $250  to  $400  per  year,  from  which, 
after  paying  a  good  round  rent,  they  might  retain 
more  than  they  can  now  make  at  any  other  employ- 
ment within  their  reach.  And  let  it  not  be  said  that 
the  culture  of  the  soil  is  unsuited  to  the  sphere  of 
woman.  We  rather  think  that  Eve  was  more  of  a 
gardener  than  shirt-maker  before  she  ''brought  sin 
into  the  world  and  all  our  woe  ;"  and  those  who  think 
gardening  unsuited  to  woman  are  referred  to  Lou- 
don's remarks  in  the  "  Gardener's  Magazine,"  where 
he  recommends  it  to  his  fair  countrywomen  instead 
of  the  ball-room  and  the  dance. 

We  shall  not  stultify  ourselves  with  referring  to 
Indian  and  European  savages,  who  make  the  women 
do  all  the  hard  work,  even  though  women  are  there 
found  equal  to  the  roughest  agricultural  labor.  But 
in  vine  culture,  after  the  first  great  effort  has  been 
made  to  get  the  soil  suitably  prepared,  there  is  really 
little  hard  work  to  be  done.  Even  hoeing  does  not 
require  more  strength  than  washing  and  scrubbing ; 
and  pruning,  trimming,  and  gathering  the  fruit  are 
not  above  the  strength  of  our  weakest  females ;  and  we 
promise  them  that  if  they  undertake  it  they  will  soon 


NATURAL    AND   CIVIL    HISTORY    OF   THE   VINE.  29 

acquire  tlie  necessary  health  and  strength.  All  that 
we  can  say  is  that  we  hope  ere  long  to  see  the  experi- 
ment tried,  and  nothing  would  afford  us  greater 
pleasure  than  to  give  a  lecture  on  vine  culture,  with 
experimental  illustrations,  to  such  a  society  of  women, 
and  tell  them  all  we  know  about^aising  good  grapes  ; 
and  we  think  we  can  point  to  others  who  are  not 
only  competent  but  willing  to  assist  in  the  good  work 
— thus  rendering  the  objection  tliat  "women  don't 
know  how  "  of  no  avail.  But  even  if  no  such  experi- 
ment should  be  tried,  we  feel  coniident  that  the 
thousands  of  acres  which  will  be  devoted  to  vine  cul- 
ture during  the  next  few  years  will  not  be  cultivated 
without  affording  abundant  work  for  women 


30  OPEN   AIR   GRAPE   CULTURE. 


CHAPTEE  II. 


SOIL,  SITUATION  AND  ASPECT. 


Soil. — ^Tlie  vine  will  grow  in  almost  any  situation, 
and  reach  a  large  size  and  exhibit  luxurious  vegeta- 
tion under  conditions  apparently  the  most  unfavor. 
able ;  but  if  healthy  vines  and  fine  fruit  be  desired,  it 
is  necessary  to  choose  a  soil  where  the  roots  can  ram- 
ble freely,  find  plenty  of  nutriment  and  be  safe  from 
stagnant  water  and  its  accompanying  cold,  soar  sub- 
soil. One  of  the  largest  vines  in  the  country  grows 
in  a  swamp  in  'New  Jersey,  and  a  vine  has  been  known 
to  grow  vigorously  from  a  cleft  in  an  old  wall  twenty 
feet  from  the  ground.  But  these  are  by  no  means 
examples  to  be  imitated  in  practice  where  we  have 
the  power  of  selecting  the  site  of  our  garden  or  vine- 
yard, though  they  afford  encouragement  to  the 
amateur  who  is  compelled  to  make  use  of  an  inferior 
location. 

The  opinion  of  good  grape  culturists  is  that  any 
soil  which  will  grow  good  Indian  corn  is  suitable  for 
grapes.  Others  describe  a  soil  adapted  to  the  cul- 
ture of  the  vine  as  one  which  will  grow  good  winter 


SOIL,    SITUATION    AND   ASPECT.  SI 

wheat  without  the  phmts  being  thrown  out  of  the 
ground  in  winter. 

Downing  recommends  a  "  strong  loamy  or  gra- 
velly soil — limestone  soils  being  usually  the  best." 
And  in  another  place  he  gives  it  as  his  opinion  that 
"  all  that  can  be  said  of  a  soil  for  grape  culture  is 
that  it  be  light,  rich  and  dry."  G.  "VY.  Johnson  thinks 
a  light,  sandy  loam  the  best.  And  Buchannan,  who 
may  be  safely  taken  as  the  representative  of  the  Cin- 
cinnati vine  growers,  recommends  a  dry,  calcareous 
loam  with  a  porous  subsoil.  At  the  recent  meeting 
of  the  Fruit  Growers'  Society  of  western  New  York, 
Dr.  Farley  stated  that  his  best  grapes  had  been 
raised  on  a  clay  soil,  and  that  in  this  matter  his 
opinion  in  regard  to  the  soil  best  adapted  to  the  cul- 
ture of  grapes  had  undergone  some  change. 

It  will  thus  be  perceived  that  the  opinions  of  our 
best  horticulturists  vary  a  little,  but  we  believe  that 
this  variation  is  mere  adaptation  to  the  diiferent  modes 
of  growth  and  training  adopted  by  the  various  culti- 
vators. The  purpose  for  which  the  grapes  are  raised 
— that  is  whether  for  wine  or  for  the  table — ought 
also  to  have  a  material  influence  in  directing  our 
choice  of  a  soil. 

When  the  object  is  to  manufacture  wine,  the  vines 
require  to  be  kept  within  moderate  bounds ;  all  rank- 
ness  of  vegetation  must  be  carefully  avoided,  and  con- 


32  OPEN    AIR    GRAPE    CULTURE. 

sequently  the  soil  must  be  light,  rich,  porous  and  dry, 
and  if  calcareous  so  much  the  better. 

On  the  other  hand,  where  high  saccharine  qualities 
are  not  so  much  desired  as  abundance  of  grapes  of 
agreeable  flavor,  the  vines  will  succeed  better  and  pro- 
duce more  certain  crops  if  allowed  a  greater  extent 
of  growth,  and  in  this  case  they  will  bear  a  heavier 
a^f^j  richer  soil — in  some  cases  (as  in  growing  Isabella 
Hii^  Diana  grapes  for  the  table)  even  preferring  a 
clay  soil  well  drained  and  cultivated  and  highly 
manured. 

That  this  view  is  correct  may  be  easily  proved  by 
referring  to,-' „«^ll-known  examples  both  in  Europe 
and  in  thiSj/  lantry.  Thus  in  the  Arriege  in  France 
a  rich  wine,  like  Tokay,  is  obtained  from  mountain 
sides  covered  with  large  stones  as  if  the  cultivators 
had  left  all  to  nature.  In  Italy  and  Sicily  the  best 
wines  are  grown  amongst  the  rubbish  of  volcanoes. 
"Good  rich  soils,"  says  Eedding,  "never  produce 
even  tolerable  wines." 

On  the  other  hand  the  rich  Chasselas  de  Fontaine- 
bleau  table  grapes  are  produced  by  vines  planted  in 
cold  and  heavy  soil,  well  manured.  And  he  w^ho 
desires  to  find  rich  soil  should  examine  the  vine  bor- 
ders of  the  English  hot-house  grape-growers.  Allen, 
one  of  our  most  successful  grape-growers  recommends 
a  border  of  the  richest  kind.     So  does  Chorlton,  and 


SOIL,    SITUATION    AND    ASPECT.  33 

sncli  we  believe  to  be  the  practice  of  all  our  success- 
ful cultivators  of  the  grape  under  glass.  The  cele- 
brated vine  at  Hampton  Court  revels  in  the  luxury 
of  an  old  sewer,  and  instances  have  come  under  our 
own  observation  where  the  proximity  of  a  vine  to 
a  cesspool  caused  the  production  of  large  quantities 
of  most  excellent  grapes.  In  France,  the  application 
of  night-soil  and  sewerage  to  the  vineyards  has  in  a"' 
cases  injured  the  quality  of  the  wine.  That  sucn 
would  have  been  the  case,  however,  if  the  French 
vignerons  had  acted  upon  correct  principles  in  the 
application  of  these  powerful  stimulants,  we  are 
scarcely  prepared  to  believe.  And  we  h.  o  no  doubt 
but  that  by  judicious  management  anu  'i  careful 
observance  of  the  laws  of  nature  one  of  the  greatest 
achievements  in  vine  culture  may  yet  be  effected,  viz  , 
the  union  of  vigorous  vegetation  and  stimulating 
manures  with  the  production  of  good  wine.  But  so 
far  as  present  experience  extends  the  soil  for  a  vine  • 
yard  must  be  light  and  not  too  liigJily  manured — and 
in  all  cases  whether  the  object  of  culture  be  wine  or 
table  grapes  the  subsoil  must  be  warm  and  loose. 
Cold  borders  are  very  prejudicial  to  the  roots  of  the 
vine,  and  are  supposed  to  be  an  efficient  cause  of  the 
shanking  of  the  grapes.  It  would  appear  from  an 
inspection  of  the  subjoined  tables  that  this  desired 
warmth  might  be  secured  to  the  surface  soil  at  least 


34 


OPEN    AIR    GRAPE    CULTURE. 


bj  plentiful  addition  of  lime  and  any  black  mold  or 
charcoal. 

Maximum  Temperatures  of  the  various  Earths 
Exjyosed  to  the  Sun.    By  Schubler. 


KINDS   OF   EARTH. 

Maximum  Temperature  of  the 
superior  layer,  the  mean  tem- 
perature of  the    ambient   air 
being  77  degrees  F. 

Moist  Earth. 

Dry  Earth. 

Silicious  sand,  yellowish  grey,  .... 
Calcareous  sand,  whitish  grey, .... 
Argillaceous  earth,  yellowish  grey. 

Calcareous  earth,  white, 

Mold,  blackish  grey, 

Degrees. 
99.05 
99.10 
99.28 
96.13 

103.55 
99.50 

Degrees. 
112.55 
112.10 
112.32 
109.40 
117.27 
113.45 

Garden  earth,  blackish  grey, 

Table  of  Retention  of  Heat.     By  Becqucrel. 


KIND  OP  EARTH. 

Capacity  for  heat, 
that  of  Calcareous 
sand  bemg  100. 

Time  required  by  18  feet 
cube  of   earth  to  cool 
from  144.5  to  70.2,  the 
temperature  of  the  sur- 
rounding air  being  61  .2. 

Calcareous  sand,  *,.... 
f-^ilicious  sand, 

100 
95.6 
68.4 
61.8 
49 

Hours. 
3.30 
3.27 
2.24 
2.10 
1.43 

Argillaceous  earth, 

Calcareous  earth, 

Mold, 

From  these  tables  it  will  be  seen  that  black  mold 
receives  or  absorbs  heat  most  rapidly,  but  parts  with 
it  in  the  shortest  space  of  time   also,  and  that  for 


receiving  and  retaining  heat,  dark  colored,  calcareous 
earth  is  by  far  the  most  efficient.  Good  silicious  sand 
comes  next  in  order,  and  hence  we  conceive  that  a 
soil  composed  chiefly  of  calcareous  and  silicious  sand, 
with  a  sufficient  amount  of  charcoal  or  mold  to  give 
it  a  dark  color,  would  prove  one  of  the  Lest  for 
grapes. 

Such  are  the  general  points  deserving  of  considera- 
tion. Those  desirous  of  studying  more  minutely  the 
influence  of  the  chemical  constitution  of  the  soil 
upon  vines  growing  therein  will  find  an  interesting 
and  valuable  r^sum^  of  the  subject  in  M.  Ladrey's 
"Chimie  applique  a  la  Yiticulture,"  whose  general 
remarks  on  this  point  are  so  much  in  unison  with  our 
own  experience  and  observation  that  we  are  tempted 
to  translate  them.  / 

"  If  now  we  examine  the  series  of  different  soils 
devoted  to  the  culture  of  the  vine  in  France  and  in 
other  countries,  we  shall  find  this  plant  cultivated  in 
soils  the  most  diverse,  not  only  as  regards  their 
natures  (nature  evidently  alluding  to  physical  consti- 
tution— Trans.) — ^but  also  their  chemical  composition. 
All  soils  appear  suited  to  the  culture  of  the  vine,  and 
there  are  none,  unless  those  absolutely  barren,  in 
which  this  plant  may  not  grow  and  develop  itself. 
Thus  the  vine  requires  but  little  fertility  in  the  soil, 
it  covers   a  great   space  of  land    which   would  be 


36  OPEN    AIR    GRAPE   CULTURE. 

unsuited  to  any  other  culture,  and  in  order  to  give  an 
idea  of  this,  we  may  cite  the  ancient  regulations  of 
Provence  which  prohibited  the  planting  of  the  vine 
until  inquiry  had  been  made  as  to  the  sterility  of 
the  soil,  and  the  permission  of  the  intendant  of  the 
j)rovince  had  been  obtained. 

But  if  the  vine  can  grow  in  all  soils  it  behaves 
very  differently  in  each  of  them.  In  strong,  argilla- 
ceous, rich  soils,  it  will  acquire  a  great  vigor  of  vege- 
tation, the  wood  is  largely  developed,  the  product  is 
abundant ;  on  the  contrary,  in  soils  poor,  light  and  dry> 
the  vine  is  less  robust,  more  delicate ;  it  requires  a 
culture  well  contrived  as  to  even  the  most  minute 
details,  and  the  product  is  much  less  in  quantity. 

"  In  general,  if  in  any  locality  the  vegetation  of  the 
vine  be  more  rich  as  the  soil  is  more  fertile,  we 
observe  by  the  side  of  this  result  that  the  nature  and 
quality  of  the  product  is  consequently  in  an  inverse 
ratio.  In  heavy  land  the  vine  is  well  developed  and 
furnishes  abundant  return ;  in  a  light  soil  it  gives  less 
and  the  product  is  of  higher  quality." 

Situation. — ^The  situation  of  a  vineyard  should  be 
elevated,  but  not  too  high,  otherwise  the  vines  will  not 
only  be  exposed  to  high  winds  and  their  concomitant 
evils,  but  will  also  be  subjected  to  a  lower  tempera- 
ture.    On  this  latter  point,  but  little  is  known — at 


SOIL,    SITUATION    AND    ASPECT.  37 

least  not  enough  to  enable  us  in  all  cases  to  reconcile 
the  anomalies  which  occur.  Enough  is  known,  how- 
ever, to  cause  us  to  avoid  the  tops  of  hills  and  the 
bottoms  of  valleys,  and  it- may  be  worth  our  while  to 
consider  a  few  of  the  principles  which  regulate  tem- 
perature in  these  situations.  During  the  night,  the 
cold  air,  being  heavy,  settles  down  into  the  valleys 
and  hollows,  thus  producing  in  such  locations  a 
temperature  several  degrees  lower  than  is  found  on 
the  sides  of  the  adjacent  hills.  And  no  influence  is 
then  at  work  to  disturb  this  state  of  things,  for  the 
earth  itself  is  becoming  rapidly  cooled  by  radiation  ; 
and  if  a  small  quantity  of  the  air  should  become 
warmed  by  contact  with  it,  it  immediately  ascends, 
and  cool  air  takes  its  place. 

At  daybreak,  however,  an  agency  is  introduced 
which  reverses  this  condition  of  things.  Then  the 
dense  air  in  the  valleys  concentrates  and  absorbs  the 
heat  of  the  sun's  rays  and  increases  their  effect  upon 
the  soil,  which  in  turn  imparts  heat  to  the  stratum  of 
air  lying  next  it.  This  lower  stratum  of  air  being 
warmed  and  consequently  rendered  much  lighter  than 
the  colder  portion  above  it,  it  ascends,  but  as  it  rises 
it  also  expands  still  more,  which  in  some  measure 
compensates  .for  the  heat  which  it  received  from  the 
earth.  The  same  process  keeps  going  on  until  night 
comes,  when  the  lower  stratum  of  air  being  no  longer 


38  OPEN    AIK    GRAPE    CULTURE. 

warmed  it  no  longer  ascends,  and  the  colder  and 
heavier  air  as^ain  accumulates  in  the  vallevs.  Thus 
it  will  be  seen,  that  during  the  night  the  air  in  the 
v^allejs  is  colder  than  that  in  other  places,  while  the 
reverse  is  the  case  during  the  day.  The  stillness  of 
the  air  in  valleys  and  sheltered  situations  also  con- 
tributes to  this  result  in  a  remarkable  degree. 

'Now  it  is  obvious,  that  if  for  any  fruit  tree,  the  air 
in  the  valleys  should  be  sufficiently  cold  to  kill  the 
buds,  no  orchard  could  succeed.  And  if,  on  the 
other  hand,  sufficient  light  and  heat  to  ripen  the  fuit 
could  not  be  found  on  the  hill-tops,  such  situations 
also  would  be  unavailable. 

Nor  is  the  mere  existence  of  such  extremes  of 
temperature  the  worst  evil.  The  destructive  influ- 
ence of  a  hot  sun  upon  frozen  vegetation  is  well  known, 
and  in  low  valleys,  the  circumstances  are  such  as  to 
P'ive  the  ""I'satest  effect  to  this  adverse  influence.  For 
not  only  are  the  plants  chilled  by  the  extra  cold  night- 
air,  they- are  also  completely  protected  from  the  rays 
of  the  sun,  until  it  has  attained  a  greater  power  than 
it  usually  exerts  at  its  first  appearance  upon  plants  in 
more  exposed  situations.  And  then,  owing  to  the 
dense  atmosphere  through  which  they  pass,  the  rays 
strike  suddenly  with  concentrated  energy  so  as  to 
thaw  the  buds  with  a  rapidity  completely  destruc- 
tive to  their  vitality.     In  such  situations  also,  the  soil 


BOIL,    SITUATION    AND    ASPECT.  39 

is  usually  very  deep  and  rich,  producing  a  vigorous 
tliouo-li  succulent  growth  which  is  unable  to  with- 
stand the  influences  above  detailed.  All  experience 
bears  out  the  practical  value  of  these  principles. 
Thus,  in  Italy,  where  the  country  is  undulating  and 
very  much  broken,  all  good  wines  are  grown  on  tlie 
hill-sides.     Hence  Yirgil  tells  us 

*'  denique  apertos 

Bacchus  amat  colles,"* 

and  modern  experience  bears  out  the  ancient  saw, 
though  it  does  not  follow,  however,  that  plains  will  not 
produce  good  wine-making  grapes,  provided  they  be  of 
sufficient  extent  to  obviate  the  evils  just  described. 
The  fine  wines  of  the  Gironde  in  France,  and  Chataux 
Margaux,  Lafitte  and  Latour,  are  grown  on  the  plains. 

Aspect— Exposure.— The  aspect  which  is  best 
adapted  to  the  growth  of  grapes  will,  of  course,  depend 
upon  influences,  some  of  which  at  least,  are  liable  to 
vary,  as  the  keenest  and  most  destructive  winds  may 
come  from  different  quarters  in  different  places— a 
very  slight  geographical  change  sometimes  making 

*  The  force  of  this  saying  is  lost  by  adopting  Mr.  Redding's  trans- 
lation "  Bacchus  loves  the  hills."  Davidson  gives  the  whole,  "  Bacchug 
loves  the  open  hills"— which  is  better.  But  the  true  meaning 
"  Bacchus  loves  the  open  little  hills"  coincides  perfectly  with  expe- 
rience  and  with  the  principles  above  set  forth. 


40  OPEN    AIR    GRAPE    CULTURE. 

an  important  difference  in  this  respect,  owing  to  pe- 
culiar topographical  features.  Thus  a  range  of  hills 
or  a  belt  of  woods,  may  so  deflect  the  prevailing 
winds,  as  to  completely  change  the  condition  of  two 
localities  situated  within  even  a  very  short  distance 
of  each  other. 

In  general,  it  will  be  found  necessary  to  secure  pro- 
tection on  the  west,  north  and  northeast.  This  may 
be  afforded  either  by  natural  local  features,  as  by  a 
range  of  hills,  or  it  may.be  derived  from  artificial 
sources,  as  woods  or  fences.  'No  defence  is  better 
than  a  good  belt  of  Norway  spruce,  and  if  they  form 
a  crescent  in  which  the  vineyard  is  embowered,  but 
little  danger  need  be  apprehended  from  violent  winds. 
Even  high  fences,  which  may  be  single,  double  or 
triple,  afford  aipnle  protection  in  ordinary  cases,  and 
as  trees,  even  of  the  fastest  growing  kind,  take  a  con- 
siderable time  before  they  give  sufficient  protection, 
many  will  prefer  the  fence.  We  are  therefore  tempted 
to  extract  from  the  "  Horticulturist"  for  August, 
18i7,  Downing's  descrij^tion  of  the  method  by  which 
Frederic  Tudor,  Esq.,  has  converted  the  naked  pro- 
montory of  Nahant  into  a  luxuriant  garden. 

"To  appreciate  the  difficulties  with  which  this 
genlieman  had  to  contend,  or  as  we  might  more 
properly  say,  which  stimulated  all  his  efforts,  we 
must  recall  to  mind  that,  frequently,  in  high  winds^ 


SOIL,    SITUATION   AND   ASPECT.  41 

the  salt  spray  drives  over  tlie  whole  of  Nahant ;  that 
until  Mr.  Tudor  began  his  improvements,  not  even  a 
bush  grew  naturally  on  the  whole  of  its  area ;  and 
that  the  east  winds  which  blew  from  the  Atlantic  in 
the  spring  are  sufficient  to  render  all  gardening  pos- 
sibilities in  the  usual  way  nearly  as  chimerical  as  cul 
tivating  the  volcanoes  of  the  moon.  Mr.  Tudor's 
residence  there,  now,  is  a  curious  and  striking  iUustra- 
tion  of  the  triumph  of  art  over  nature. 

"  Of  course,  even  the  idea  of  a  place  worthy  of  the 
name  of  a  garden  in  this  bald,  sea  girt  cape,  was  out 
of  the  question,  unless  some  mode  of  overcoming  the 
violence  of  the  gales  and  the  bad  effect  of  the  salt 
spray  could  be  devised.  The  plan  Mr.  Tudor  has 
adopted  is,  we  believe,  original  with  him,  and  is  at 
once  extremely  simple  and  perfectly  effective. 

"  It  consiBts  merely  of  two,  or  at  most  three  parallel 
rows  of  high  open  fences,  made  of  rough  slats  or 
palings,  nailed  in  the  common  vertical  manner,  about 
three  inches  wide,  and  a  space  of  a  couple  of  inches 
left  between  them.  These  paling  fences  are  about 
16  feet  high,  and  usually  form  a  double  row  (on  the 
most  exposed  side,  a  triple  row)  round  the  whole 
garden.  The  distance  between  tliat  on  the  outer 
boundary  and  the  next  interior  one  is  about  four  feet. 
Tlie  garden  is  also  intersected  here  and  there  by  tall 


42  OPEN   AIR   GRAPE   CULTURE. 

trellis  fences  of  the  same  kind,  all  of  which  help  to 
increase  the  shelter,  while  some  of  those  in  the  inte- 
rior serve  as  frames  for  training  trees  npon. 

"The  effect  of  this  double  or  triple  barrier  of  high 
paling  is  marvellous  ;  although  like  a  common  paling, 
apparently  open  and  permitting  the  wind  a  free  pas- 
sage, yet  in  practice  it  is  found  entirely  to  rob  the 
gales  of  their  violence  and  their  saltness.  To  use 
Mr.  Tudor's  words,  '  it  completely  sifts  the  air.'  After 
great  storms,  whgn  the  outer  barrier  will  be  found 
covered  with  a  coating  of  salt,  the  foliage  in  the 
garden  is  entirely  uninjured.  It  acts,  in  short,  like  a 
rustic  veil,  that  admits  just  so  much  of  the  air,  and  in 
such  a  manner  as  most  to  promote  the  growth  of  the 
trees,  while  it  breaks  and  wards  off  all  the  deleteri- 
ous influences  of  a  genuine  ocean  breeze,  so  pernicious 
to  tender  leaves-  and  shoots.' 

"It  is  worthy  of  record,  among  the  results  of  Mr. 
Tudor's  culture,  that  two  years  after  the  principal 
plantation  of  his  fruit  trees  was  Inade,  he  carried  off 
the  second  prize  for  pears  at  the  annual  exhibition  of 
the  Massachusetts  Horticultural  Society,  among  dozens 
of  zealous  competitors,  and  with  the  fruit  most  care- 
fully grown  in  that  vicinity." 

Of  the  necessity  for  shelter  under  circumstances  far 
less  desperate  than  those  at  Kahant,  no  good  horti- 


SOIL,    SITUATION    AND    ASPECT.  43 

culturist  has  any  doubt.  Even  t^e  oak-tree  lias 
been  proved  by  a  well  directed  series  of  experiments, 
to  be  benefited  by  shelter  in  the  comparatively  mild 
climate  of  England.  For  the  rationale  of  the  evil 
effects  of  wind  on  plants  in  general,  we  must  refer 
tlie  reader  to  Lindley's  "  Theory  and  Practice  of  Hor- 
ticulture." The  following  cases  are  detailed  by  IToare  : 

"  Many  instances  might  be  circumstantially  de- 
tailed of  the  injurious  effects  of  wind  upon  established 
vines  during  their  summer's  growth ;  two,  however, 
of  recent  occurrence  will  perhaps  suffice. 

"On  the  eleventh  of  June,  1833,  a  strong  wind 
sprang  up  early  in  the  morning  from  the  west,  and 
increased  in  force  till  noon,  when  it  blew  quite  a  gale 
and  continued  to  do  so  throughout  the  day.  It  slack- 
ened a  little  during  the  night,  and  gradually  de- 
creased in  violence  the  next  day,  dying  entirely  away 
in  the  evening. 

"The  effects  of  this  wind  on  a  vine  of  the  White 
Muscadine  sort,  trained  on  a  wall  having  a  western 
aspect,  were  carefully  observed.  It  had  on  a  full 
crop  of  fruit  and  a  good  supply  of  fine  young  bearing 
shoots,  and  was  altogether  in  a  most  thriving  condi- 
tion'. Such,  however,  were  the  injurious  efiects  of 
the  wind  in  dissipating  all  the  accumulated  secretions 
of  the  foliage,  and  then  closing,  almost  hermetically, 
its   pores,  and  thereby   totally   deranging   the   vital 


4:4  OPEN    AIR   GRAPE   CULTURE. 

functions  of  tlie^plant,  that  altliougli  in  the  height  of 
the  growing  season,  not  the  slightest  appearance  of 
renewed  vegetation  could  be  discerned  in  any  part 
of  its  leaves,  shoots  or  fruit,  until  the  third  day  of 
July,  or  twenty-tw^o  days  afterward.  It  never  pro- 
duced another  inch  of  good  bearing  wood  throughout 
the  remainder  of  the  season,  but  lingered  in  a  very 
weak  and  sickly  condition ;  and  the  fruit  which  luid 
been  previously  estimated  at  ninety  pounds'  weiglit, 
did  not  exceed  fifty-five  pounds  when  gathered,  and 
tliat  of  a  very  inferior  description  in  point  of  flavor 
and  size  of  berry.  Its  leaves,  also,  having  been  thus 
crippled,  were  shed  prematurely  a  month  before  their 
n'atural  time,  and  hence  the  deficiency  in  the  flavor 
and  size  of  the  grapes. 

"  The  other  instance,  which  happened  shortly  after- 
ward, is  still  more  decisive.  On  the  30th  of  August 
following,  about  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening,  a  strong 
wind  began  to  blow  from  the  southwest,  accompanied 
with  heavy  rain.  At  nine  it  blew  violently,  and  con- 
tinued to  do  so  until  noon  the  next  day.  It  then 
slackened,  and  then  veering  to  the  northwest,  died 
aw^ay  some  time  during  the  following  night. 

"  The  full  force  of  this  wind  fell  on  a  remarkably 
fine  black  Hamburg  vine,  trained  on  a  wall  having  a 
southwestern  aspect,  and  its  efi'ects  w^ere  therefore 
proportionately  destructive.     Many  of  the  principal 


SOIL,    SITUATION   AND   ASPECT.  45 

branches  were  torn  so  completely  from  their  fasten- 
ings that  their  extremities  swept  the  ground.  The 
bunches  of  fruit  were  knocked  about,  and  portions  of 
them,  as  well  as  single  berries,  lay  scattered  on  the 
ground  in  every  direction.  On  the  fruit,  however, 
that  survived  the  wreck,  the  effects  of  the  wind  were 
remarkable.  It  must  be  stated  that  the  wall  on 
which  the  vine  is  trained,  is  ten  feet  high,  and  is  so 
situated  that  to  the  height  of  about  three  feet  from 
the  ground  the  wind  had  but  little  power  over  it,  its 
force  being  broken  by  an  outer  wall  standing  at  a 
little  distance  off  in  front  of  it.  On  the  lower  part  of 
the  wall  so  protected,  the  grapes  not  having  been 
much  injured,  began  to  change  their  color  and  ripen 
about  the  twentieth  of  September,  and  on  tlie  twelfth 
of  October  every  berry  was  perfectly  matured,  while 
all  those  that  remained  on  the  vine  above  three  feet 
from  the  ground,  were,  on  the  first  of  JS^ovember,  as 
green  and  hard  as  on  the  thirtieth  of  August,  when 
the  high  wind  occurred.'  Shortly  afterward  these 
began  to  change  their  color,  and  ultimately  ripened 
tolerably  well  by  the  first  week  in  December.  Thus, 
solely  through  the  effects  of  a  strong  wind,  there 
were  to  be  seen  at  the  same  time,  on  the  same 
branches  of  this  vine,  and  within  nine  inches  of  each 
other,  bunches  of  grapes,  the  lowermost  of  .which 
were  perfectly  ripe,  while  the  uppermost  were  quite 


46  OPEN    AIR    GKAPE   CTJLTUKE. 

green  and  hard,  and  not  witliin  seven  weeks  of  reach- 
ing the  same  state  of  maturity. 

"  These  facts,  which  might  be  multiplied  indefinitely, 
sufficiently  show  the  injurious  eifects  of  strong  winds, 
and  the  necessity  of  protecting  vines  as  much  as  pos- 
sible from  their  destructive  consequences." 

But  although  there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  evil 
effects  of  wind  storms,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
ventilation,  and  even  motion,  are  essential  to  the 
health  and  growth  of  the  vine.  Experiments  made 
by  Andrew  Knight,  show  that  young  trees  tied  to 
stakes  so  as  to  prevent  all  motion,  do  not  increase  in 
size  as  much  as  those  left  to  the  free  action 
of  wind.  Hence,  perhaps,  one  reason  why  wire  is  to 
be  preferred  to  wood  for  the  cross  slats  of  trellises. 
In  the  northern  States,  however,  we  in  general  have 
wind  enough  for  all  useful  purposes.  But  in  view  of 
these  facts,  we  would  rest  content  with  shelter  out- 
side of  the  vineyard,  and  unless  in  very  exposed  situ- 
ations we  w^ould  not  deem  it  advisable  to  place  either 
trees  or  fences  amongst  the  vines. 

But  while  we  can  guard  against  wind  and  storms 
by  belts  of  woods  or  high  fences,  there  are  other  in- 
fluences which  we  cannot  thus  alter.  Chiefly  among 
these  is  the  exposure  of  the  sun's  rays. 

Exposure  is,  in  general,  derived  from  one  or  both 
of  two  causes.     First,  the  inclination  of  the  ground, 


SOIL,    SITUATION    AND   ASPECT.  47 

and,  secondly,  its  openness  and  freedom  from  over- 
Bliadowing  influences.  A  wall  is  a  good  illustration 
of  the  latter — the  north  side  having  a  northern  expo- 
sure, and  causing  fruit  planted  against  it  to  ripen  at 
a  much  later  period  than  that  planted  on  the  south 
side,  which  has  a  southern  exposure.  The  little 
raised  mounds  or  flower-beds,  to  be  found  in  every 
garden,  exhibit  the  influence  exerted  by  the  inclina- 
tion of  the  earth — the  vegetation  on  the  south  side 
being  usually  some  days  earlier  than  that  on  the 
north. 

For  vinevards,  the  best  exposure  is  undoubtedly  a 
southern  one,  slightly  inclined  toward  the  east,  or  at 
least  fully  protected  from  the  west,  and  also  from  the 
early  morning  rays.  "  It  has  often  been  observed 
that  woods  or  thick  trees,  buildings,  high,  broad 
fences,  or  steep  hills,  on  the  east  side  of  peach 
orchards,  protect  the  croj).  Hence  the  erroneous 
opinion,  that  it  is  the  east  winds  which  do  the  dam- 
age. It  is  the  sunshine  upon  the  frozen  buds  which 
destroys  them ;  hence  a  clouded  sky,  after  a  clear 
frosty  night,  by  preventing  sudden  thawing,  some- 
times saves  a  crop.  Covering  trees  of  rare  kinds 
with  mats,  to  shade  them  from  the  morning  sun, 
after  an  intensely  frosty  night,  might  sometimes  be 
highly  beneficial."    (Thomas.) 

In  this  connection,  it  may  be  proper   to  consider 


is  OPEN   AIR   GRAPE   CULTURE. 

the  best  direction  for  the  trellises  on  which  the  vines 
are  trained.  We  have  often  seen  a  north  and  south 
direction  advised  under  the  idea  that  the  vines  thus 
receive,  the  sun's  rajs  for  a  longer  time.  But  the 
evils  attached  to  this  plan  are  great  and  insurmount- 
able. In  the  first  place,  the  vines  receive  the  full 
force  of  the  early  morning  sun  which,  striking  the 
young  leaves  while  still  cold,  and  it  may  be  partially 
frozen,  is  productive  of  the  most  injurious  effects. 
Then  as  the  day  progresses  toward  noon,  the  vines 
are  so  shaded  as  not  to  receive  the  amount  of  heat, 
which  they  would  gladly  enjoy  at  that  time,  while 
toward  evening  again  their  excitability  is  greatly 
increased  and  is  kept  up  until  the  last  moment,  instead 
of  the  exciting  influence  being  quietly  withdraw^n  as 
it  ought  to  be. 

But  if  we  give  our  trellis  a  direction  from  east  to 
west,  instead  of  from  north  to  south,  the  vines  will 
expose  but  a  small  surface  to  the  first  rays  Of  the  sua 
which  will  thus  w^arm  them  gradually,  until  it  attains 
its  meridian  splendor,  when  it  will  exert  its  full  power 
and  then  gradually  decline  until  evening,  when 
everything  will  gradually  cool  down.  Sudden 
changes  are  thus  avoided,  and  the  full  power  of  the 
sun  is  secured  in  tlie  ripening  of  the  grapes. 

Intimately  connected  with  the  foregoing  subjects, 
are  the  laws  which  regulate  the  influence  of  tempe 


SOIL,    SITUATION    AND    ASPECT.  49 

rature  upon  vegetation.     These  are  stated  "by  M.  De 
Candolle,  as  follows  : 

1.  All  other  things  being  equal,  the  power  of  each 
plant  and  of  each  part  of  a  plant,  to  -resist  extremes 
of  temperature  is  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  the  quan- 
tity of  water  thej  contain. 

2.  The  power  of  plants  to  resist  extremes  of  tem- 
perature is  directly  in  proportion  to  the  viscidity  of 
their  fluids. 

3.  The  power  of  plants  to  resist  cold  is  in  the 
inverse  ratio  of  the  rapidity  with  which  their  fluids 
circulate. 

4.  The  liability  to  freeze,  of  the  fluids  contained  in 
plants,  is  greater  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  cells. 

5.  The  power  of  plants  to  resist  extremes  of  tem- 
perature is  in  a  direct  proportion  to  the  quantity  of 
confined  air  which  the  structure  of  their  organs  give 
them  the  means  of  retaining  in  the  more  delicate 
parts. 

6.  The  power  of  plants  to  resist  extremes  of  tem- 
perature is  in  direct  proportion  to  the  capability 
which  the  roots  possess  of  absorbing  sap  less  exposed 
to  the  external  influence  of  the  atmosphere  and  the 
sun. 

From  this  it  will  be  obvious  that  all  rank  growth 
and  succulent  vegetation  should  be  avoided  where 
the  desired  object  is  to  obtain  hardy  vines. 


50  OPEN   AIK   GKAPE   CULTUEE. 


CHAPTER  III. 

PEEPARA.TION  OF   THE    SOIL  AND  FORMATION  OF  VINE 
BOEDEKS. 

Having  selected  a  proper  site  for  a  vineyard,  tho 
next  step  will  be  to  prepare  the  soil  for  the  reception 
of  the  young  vines.  It  is  rarely  if  ever  that  ground 
can  be  found  in  a  condition  fit  to  plant  a  vineyard 
without  thorough  and  extensive  improvements,  and 
unless  it  be  in  proper  order  our  hopes  of  success  will 
end  in  failure  and  disappointment. 

In  our  remarks  on  soil  it  was  stated  that  one  abso- 
lute necessity  is  a  dry  subsoil.  JSTo  other  good  quali- 
ties can  compensate  for  the  want  of  this,  and  in  most 
cases  it  is  only  to  be  obtained  by  thorough  draining. 

The  first  great  evil  obviated  by  thorough  draining 
is  the  existence  of  stagnant  water  beneath  the  sur- 
face. It  is  a  saying  amongst  vine-dressers  that  "  the 
vine  cannot  bear  wet  feet."  And  nothing  can  be 
more  true.  If  the  roots  be  exposed  to  stagnant  water 
they  will  become  diseased  and  die  ofi",  thus  giving 
rise  to  weak  and  ill-ripened  though  sometimes  succu 
lent  growth,  and  hence  causing  the  vine  to  suffer  from 


PREPARATION    OF   THE    SOIL.  51 

the  attacks  of  disease  and  insects.  The  grapes,  loo, 
will  not  ripen  well,  but  will  remain  sour  and  ill-fla- 
vored. 

M.  Gasparin  gives  the  following  observations  with 
regard  to  the  influence  which  a  drj  or  a  moist  soil 
exerts  upon  the  grape  :  "  Other  things  being  equal, 
we  obtain  grapes  which  contain  much  sugar  and  lit- 
tle acid  from  vines  grown  in  a  dry  soil ;  more  free 
acid  in  a  moist  soil,  and  much  acid,  albumen  and 
mucilage  with  little  sugar  in  a  soil  which  is  absolu- 
tely wet." 

Anotlier  advantage  consists  in  the  fact  that  well- 
drained  land  always  possesses  a  higher  temperature 
than  that  which  is  wet.  This  difierence  amounts  to 
10°  to  12°  Fah.  and.  is  accounted  for  by  the  rapid 
absorption  of  heat  by  the  water  as  it  becomes  con- 
verted into  vapor.  During  this  process,  too,  it  is  pro- 
bable that  the  nascent  vapor  robs  the  earth  of  a  por- 
tion of  the  ammonia  and  gases  which  it  would  have 
separated  from  the  water  and  retained  if  it  had  acted 
as  a  filter  and  the  water  had  passed  off  by  the  drains. 
But  however  this  may  be,  its  efl'ect  on  temperature 
is  such  that  Johnson  regards  thorough  draining  as 
equal  to  a  change  of  climate. 

But  not  only  does  draining  enable  the  soil  to  filter 
all  the  water  which  descends  upon  it,  retaining  its 
ammonia,  gases  and  even  salts ;  it  is  probable  that  by 


52  OPEN    AIR    GKAPE    CULTURE. 

I 

these  means  the  excrementitious  matters  discharged 
by  phmts,  as  well  as  other  noxious  bodies  are  washed 
out  of  the  subsoil  or  decomposed  by  contact  with  the 
air  which  penetrates  along  with  the  water.  In  the 
case  of  oxide  of  iron  it  is  probable  that  a  very 
beneficial  effect  results  from  its  conversion  from  the 
protoxide  to  the  peroxide  by  means  of  this  influence. 

But  a  change  in  the  chemical  constitution  and 
action  of  the  soil  is  not  the  only  effect  of  this  opera- 
tion ;  a  no  less  marked  alteration  is  produced  in  its 
mechanical  character — heavy  lands  being  rendered 
light,  porous  and  permeable  to  the  roots  of  tender 
2^1  ants. 

It  is  unnecessary  here  to  give  minute  directions  for 
performing  such  a  well-known  operation,  so  we  shall 
merely  refer  our  readers  to  some  of  the  numerous 
treatises  on  that  subject.  An  excellent  article  on  the 
theory  and  practice  of  draining  will  be  found  in  the 
"  Rural  Annual "  for  1859  published  at  the  office  of  the 
"  Genesee  Farmer,''  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

"We  may  state,  however,  that  in  laying  drains  for  a 
vineyard,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  after  the 
vines  are  planted  it  will  be  almost  impossible  to  get 
at  the  drains  in  case  of  accident,  without  serious 
detriment  to  the  plants.  It  will,  therefore,  be  well  to 
construct  them  in  the  most  substantial  manner  and 
also  to  arrange  them  so  that  they  will  not  lie  imme- 


PREPARATION    OF   THE    SOIL.  63 

diately  under  any  of  the  rows  of  vines.  If  tliej  are 
hctwccn  the  rows  it  will  not  be  so  difficult  to  get  at 
them  as  if  they  lay  directly  beneath  the  plants. 

The  next  great  requisite  in  a  soil  for  the  culture  of 
the  vine  is  depth.  Ordinary  soils  of  from  eiglit  to 
ten  inches  are  by  no  means  deep  enougli.  Twenty 
inches  is  the  least  depth  to  be  relied  upon,  and,  if 
very  favorable  results  are  desired,  it  should  be  made 
three  feet.  The  subsoil  to  this  depth  should  be 
thoroughly  loosened,  and,  unless  its  quality  is  very 
inferior,  it  may  be  well  to  mix  it  with  the  surface 
soil — adding  at  the  same  time  a  good  supply  of 
manure  or  compost.  We  are  aware  that  some  horti- 
culturists object  to  bringing  up  the  subsoil,  but  we 
incline  to  the  belief  that  if  it  is  of  sach  a  character  as 
to  produce  mucli  injury,  the  site  is  unfit  for  a  vine- 
yard. When  the  subsoil  is  light  (except  it  be  pure 
sand)  no  harm  can  result.  If  it  be  pure  sand,  how- 
ever,  it  had  better  remain  where  it  is  unless  a  suffi- 
ciency of  clay  can  be  found  to  mix  with  it.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  be  so  clayey  as  to  hermetically  seal 
up  the  vine  borders,  we  should  prefer  to  let  it  remain 
under.  But,  if  possible,  a  site  should  be  selected 
where  a  good  depth  of  tolerable  soil  may  be  obtained 
(3ither  naturally  or  by  proper  effort.' 

The  advantages  incident  to  depth  in  ordinary  cases 
o.onsist  in   the  roots  being  placed  alike  beyond  the 


54  OPEN    AIR    GEAPE    CULTURE. 

extreme' heat  of  summer  and  tlie  severe  cold  of  win- 
ter. Consequently  they  do  not  suffer  from  drought,' 
and  are  able  at  once  to  enter  upon  their  duties  in  the 
spring. 

For  table  grapes,  we  doubt  whether  the  soil  can 
be  too  deep  or  rich — not  jneaning  by  the  latter  term, 
however,  saturated  with  undecomposed  organic  mat- 
ter. But  observation  leads  us  to  doubt  tlie  propriety 
of  carrying  these  features  to  an  extreme  in  the  case 
of  closely-trimmed  vines  cultivated  for  wine.  It  is 
true  that  the  Western  authors  (Kemelin,  Buchannan, 
etc. — some  of  them  Europeans)  advocate  this  depth 
and  richness.  But,  if  our  memory  does  not  deceive 
us,  some  of  Mr.  Longwortli's  tenants  who  have  not 
pursued  the  most  thorough  system  of  cultivation 
have  occasionally  escaped  evils  to  which  their  more 
skillful  and  hard-working  brethren  have  been  ex 
posed.  And  perhaps  a  solution  of  this  mystery  may 
be  found  above,  notwithstanding  Mr.  Longwortli 
naively  tells  us  that  he  cannot  believe  that  nature 
ever  favors  the  indolent.  Our  own  experience  in 
this  particular  department  is  not  sufficient  to  warrant 
us  in  pronouncing  a  decided  opinion  on  the  subject; 
but  the  principles  of  physiology  would  lead  us  to  be- 
lieve that  if  the  roots  of  vines  are  planted  in  a  deep 
and  rich  soil  the  branches  must  be  allowed  corres- 
2)onding  elbow  room.    If  we  desire  to  keep  a  vigorous 


PREPARATION    OF   THE   SOIL.  '  55 

plant  down  we  mnst  starve  and  curtail  its  roots  as 
well  as  use  the  pruning-knife  on  its  branches.. 

There  are  two  methods  of  deepening  a  soil,  viz :  by 
the  subsoil  plough  and  by  trenching  with  the  spade. 
Both  these  operations  are  too  well  known  to  require 
a  minute  description,  though  in  regard  to  the  latter 
there  are  so  many  and  such  contradictory-  directions 
given  in  books  that  we  may  be  pardoned  a  few  re- 
marks in  relation  thereto. 

In  order  properly  to  trench  a  piece  of  ground  the 
directions  given  by  Loudon  are  as  explicit  and  judi- 
cious as  possible.  "  Trenching  is  a  mode  of  pulveriz_ 
ing  and  mixing  the  soil,  or  of  pulverizing  and  chang- 
ing its  surface  to  a  greater  depth  than  can  be  done 
by  the  spade  alone.  For  trenching  with  a  view  to 
pulverizing  and  changing  the  surface,  a  trench  is 
formed  like  the  furrow  in  digging,  but  two  or  more 
times  wilder  and  deeper;  the  plot  or  piece  to  be 
trenched  is  next  marked  off  with  the  line  into  parallel 
strips  of  this  width ;  and  beginning  at  one  of  these, 
the  operator  digs  or  picks  the  surface  stratum,  and 
throws  it  in  the  bottom  of  the  trench.  Havino:  com- 
pleted  w^itli  the  shovel  the  removal  of  the  surface 
stratum^  a  second,  third  or  fourth,  according  to  the 
depth  of  the  soil  and  other  circumstances,  is  removed 
in  the  same  way ;  and  thus,  when  the  operation  is 
completed,   the   position   of  the   different   strata  is 


56  OPEN    AIR    GKAPE    CULTURE. 

exactly  tlie  reverse  of  wha,t  they  were  before.  In 
trenching  with  a  view  to  mixture  and  pulverization, 
all  that  is  necessary  is  to  open,  at  one  corner  of  the 
plot,  a  trench  or  excavation  of  the  desired  depth,  3 
or  4  feet  broad,  and  6  or  8  feet  long.  Then  proceed 
to  fill  the  excavation  from  one  end  by  working  out  a 
similar  onfe.  In  this  way  proceed  across  the  piece  to 
be  trenched,  and  then  return,  and  so  on  in  parallel 
courses  to  the  end  of  the  plot,  observing  that  the  face 
or  position  of  the  moved  soil  in  the  trench  must 
always  be  that  of  a  slope,  in  order  that  whatever  is 
thrown  there  may  be  Jiiixed  and  not  deposited  in 
regular  layers  as  in  the  other  case.  To  effect  this 
most  completely,  the  operator  should  always  stand  in 
the  bottom  of  the  trend i,  and  first  picking  down  and 
mixing  the  materials,  from  the  solid  side,  should 
next  take  them  up  with  the  shovel,  and  throw  them 
on  the  slope  or  face  of  the  moved  soil,  keeping  a  dis- 
tinct space  of  two  or  three  feet  between  them.  For 
want  of  attention  to  this,  in  trenching  new  soils  for 
gardens  and  plantations,  it  may  be  truly  said  that 
half  the  benefit  derivable  from  the  operation  is  lost." 
A  more  expeditious  method  of  mixing  the  soil, 
and  one  which  varies  but  slightly  from  the  ordinary 
system,  consists  in  cutting  down  the  bank  in  succes- 
sive sections  so  as  to  produce  theoretically  a  series  of 
layers  of  soil  and  subsoil,  but  in  reality  a  most  inti- 


rRl.PARATION    OF   THE    SOIL.  57 

mate  mixture  of  tlie  two.  This  is  best  accomplished 
by  opening  a  very  wide  trench — say  from  four  to 
six  feet  wide.  Then  tlirow  the  top  spit  off  a  "bank  of 
tlie  same  width  into  the  bottom  of  the  trench  so  as  to 
insure  the  burial  of  all  insects,  seeds,  and  weeds  ;  cut  a 
width  of  from  six  to  fifteen  inches  of  the  remaining  por- 
tion of  the  bank  completely  down  to  the  bottom,  and 
spread  the  soil  so  obtained  in  a  thin  layer  over  the 
spit  formerly  thrown  in.  Then  cut  down  another  six 
to  fifteen  inches  in  tlie  same  manner,  proceeding  thus 
until  the  whole  bank  has  been  cut  down  and  used  to 
fill  up  tlie  trench.  It  will  now  be  found  that,  with 
the  exception  of  the  extreme  top  spit  which  is  placed 
at  the  bottom  for  very  good  reasons,  the  whole  soil  is 
sufiiciently  mixed  for  all  practical  purposes. 

Another  mode  of  trenching — called  bastard  trench- 
ing— is  thus  described  by  a  writer  in  the  "  Gardener's 
Chronicle :"  "  Open  a  trench  two  feet  and  a  half,  or 
a  yard  wid(i,  one  full  spit  and  the  shovelling  deep, 
and  wheel  the  soil  from  it  to  where  it  is  intended  to 
finish  the  piece ;  then  put  in  the  dung  and  dig  it  in 
with  the  bottom  spit  in  the  trench ;  then  fill  uj)  this 
trench  with  the  top  spit,  etc.,  of  tlie  second,  treating 
it  in  like  manner,  and  so  on.  The  advantages  of  this 
plan  of  working  the  soil  are,  the  good  soil  is  retained 
at  the  top — an  important   consideration  wdiere  the 

soil  is  poor  or  bad ;  the  bottom  soil  is  enriched  and 

p.* 


58  OPEN    AIR    GEA.PE    CULTURE. 

loosened  for  the  penetration  and  nourisliment  of  the 
roots,  and  allowmg  them  to  descend  deeper,  they  are 
not  so  liable  to  suffer  from  drought  in  summer; 
strong  soil  is  rendered  capable  of  absorbing  more 
moisture,  and  yet  remains  drier  at  the  surface  by  the 
water  passing  down  more  rapidly  to  the  subsoil,  and 
it  insures  a  more  thorough  shifting  of  the  soil." 

A  method  which  we  have  sometimes  adopted,  and 
which  we  think  a  saving  of  labor  under  some  circum- 
stances, is  as  follows : 


A  F 

B  E 

C  D 


to 
Pig.  1. 


Let  fig.  1.  represent  the  plot  of  ground  to  be 
trenched.  Divide  it  into  two  equal  parts  by  the  line 
a  l^  and  "instead  of  wheeling  the  soil  out  of  a  f  to  the 
rear  of  the  plot,  simply  throw  that  from  a  out  in  front. 


PREPARATION    OF   THE    SOIL.  59 

There  can,  of  course,  be  no  more  difficulty  in  find- 
ing room  for  it  there  than  there  would  be  in  obtain- 
ing a  place  for  it  in  the  rear.  Then  dig  down  the 
bank  b,  and  with  it  fill  the  trench  a.  b  is  now  a 
trench  which  may  be  filled  from  c  ;  c  may  be  filled 
from  D ;  d  from  e  ;  e  from  f  ;  and  the  filling  of  f 
with  the  soil  which  was  at  first  thrown  out  of  a,  will 
make  all  even.  The  wheeling  of  the  soil,  which  is  no 
inconsiderable  item,  is  thus  saved.  It  is  evident, 
however,  that  this  plan  is  adapted  only  to  small,  or 
at  least  narrow  plots. 

All  the  foregoing  operations  prove  most  beneficial 
when  performed  in  the  fall.  At  that  time  the  soil 
should  not  be  finely  pulverized,  but  left  in  as  rough 
a  state  as  possible  so  as  to  expose  it  thoroughly  to  the 
action  of  the  winter's  frost  and  snow.  It  should  be 
also  well  mixed  with  a  good  dressing  of  well  decom- 
posed stable  manure,  and  any  of  those  matters  men- 
tioned in  Chapter  XL 

By  these  means,  the  ground  will  be  thoroughly 
enriched  by  spring,  and  will  not  consist  of  eartn 
mixed  with  fermenting  masses  of  manure,  than  which 
nothing  can  be  more  injurious  to  young  plants.  In 
the  following  spring  the  land  should  be  raked  or  har- 
rowed, so  as  to  obtain  a  level  surface  of  finely  pulver- 
ized soil,  and  if  it  should  be  lightly  forked  over  it 
would  be  none  the  worse  for  it. 


60 


OPEN    AIR   GKAPE   CULTURE. 


Terraces. — From  our  directions  for  the  selection 
of  a  vineyard  site,  it  will  be  seen  that  we  prefer  a  gen- 
tle slope  to  the  south  or  southeast.  If  this  slope  does 
not  exceed  an  angle  of  eight  degrees,  or  a  rise  of  one 
foot  in  seven,  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  adopt  any 
peculiar  system  of  arrangement.  For  a  rise  of  one  in 
four  it  will  be  necessary  merely  to  make  very  slight 
terraces,  the  borders  being  made  eight  feet  w^ide 
and  half  the  descent  being  taken  up  by  the  slope 
given  to  them,  will  leave  but  twelve  inches  of  a  ter- 
race, which  may  be  easily  secured  by  a  row  of  sods, 
boards  or  stones,  or  even  the  earth  beaten  hard  and 
kept  carefully  dressed  up.  But  when  the  inclination 
of  the  ground  much  exceeds  this  amount,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  form  regular  terraces  which  is  best 
done  as  follows : 

Find'  out  the  actual  slo23e  or  inclination  of  the 
ground,  which  is  easily  done  by  taking  an  eight-foot 


Fig.  2. 


board,  and  after  laying  one  edge  on  the  ground  and 
levelling  the  board,  find  the  length  of  the  perpendi- 


PREPAEATION    OF   THE    SOIL.  61 

• 

ciilar  wliicli  tonclies  tlie  surface  beneath  the  other  end. 
Tlius  a  d^  fig.  2,  being  the  surface  of  the  hill, 
and  c  the  eight  feet  board  with  the  level  resting  upon 
it,  e  d^  will  be  the  rise  in  eight  feet  and  e  <7,  less  the 
slope  given  to  the  border  will  be  the  height  of  each 
step  or  terrace.  Having  found  this,  the  next  step  is 
to  cut  a  perpendicular  face  half  the  height  of  the  pro- 
posed terrace  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  and  against  it  to 
build  a  wall  as  high  as  may  be  required.  This  is  best 
formed  of  dry  stone,  though  the  bank  is  sometimes 
left  with  a  good  deal  of  slope,  and  sodded,  the  sods 
being  pinned  to  the  face  of  the  bank  with  stakes  until 
the  roots  have  penetrated  sufficiently  to  hold.  The 
sods  for  this  purpose  should  not  be  cut  square,  but  dia- 
mond form,  so  that  the  face  of  the  bank  would  pre- 
sent the  appearance  shown  in  fig.  3.     But  sods  are 


\\\ \  \\\ 

/////// 

\  \  \  \  \  \  \ 

Fig.  3. 


objectionable  from  the  fact  that  they  not  only  keep 
the  air  moist  in  the  vicinity  of  the  vines,  but  also 
abstract  a  good  deal  of  nutriment  from  the  soil,  and 
unless  kept  neatly  mown  present  a  vei-y  bad  ai)pear- 


62 


OPEN    AIR    GKAPE    CULTURE. 


In  default  of  good  stone  we  think  that  sun- 


ance. 

dried  brick  would  make  a  very  good  wall.  The 
earth  of  which  they  are  made  should  be  mixed  with 
straw,  well  worked  and  made  into  blocks. 

It  is  probable  that  in  well-drained  terraces  such 
walls  would  last  well  if  protected  with  a  coping  of 
boards  or  straw  secured  with  good  clay  in  the  man- 
ner shown  in  fig.  4,  so  as  to  shed  the  rain. 


'  Figure  4, 

Having  built  this  wall,  the  next  step  is  to  fill  up 
behind  it,  and  level  ofi"  a  border  of  suitable  width — 
say  6  or  8  feet.  To  do  this  it  will  be  necessary  to  cut 
down  a  perpendicular  face  the  same  height  as  before, 
when  another  wall  must  be  built,  and  the  same  pro- 
cess repeated. 

A  writer  in  the  third  volume  of  the  "  Gardener's 
Magazine"  proposes  to  train  the  vines  on   trellises 


PKEPARATION    OF   THE    SOIL. 


63 


lying  on  the  surfcico  of  the  slopes  as  shown  in  figure  5. 
Trained   in   this   manner,  grapes   are  said   to   have 


Figure  5. 

ripened  well  in  England.  We  would  prefer  the 
vertical  trellis,  however,  and  give  the  illustration, 
more  to  show  what  has  been  proposed  than  as  an 
example  to  be  followed.  So  many  times  have  we 
seen  it  proposed  to  incline  trellises  and  train  vines 
horizontally,  that  we  cannot  refrain  from  quoting 
Lindley's  remarks  upon  this  point. 

"That  training  a  tree  over  the  fiice  of  a  wall  will 
protect  the  blossoms  from  cold  must  be  apparent, 
when  we  consider  the  severe  effect  of  excessive  era- 
poration  upon  the  tender  parts.  A  merely  low 
temperature  will  produce  but  little  comparative  in- 
jury in  a  still  air,  because  the  more  essential  parts 
of  the  flower  are  very  much  guarded  by  the  bracts, 
calyx  and  petals,  ^lich  overlie  them,  and,  more- 
over,  because  radiation  will  be  intercepted  by  the 


64  OPEN    AIR    GKAPE    (  ULTUEE. 

branches  themselves,  placed  one  above  the  other,  so 
that  none  but  the  uppermost  branches  which  radiate 
into  space  will  feel  its  full  effects ;  but  when  a  cold 
wind  is  constantly  passing  through  the  brandies  and 
among  the  flowers,  the  perspiration — against  which 
no  sufiicient  guard  is  provided  by  nature — becomes 
so  rapid  as  to  increase  the  amount  of  cold  consider- 
ably, besides  abstracting  more  aqueous  matter  than 
a  plant  can  safely  part  with.  To  prevent  this  being 
one  of  the  great  objects  of  training  trees,  it  is  incon- 
ceivable how  any  one  should  have  recommended 
such  devices  as  those  mentioned  in  the  '  Horticultural 
Transactions,'  11.  Appendix,  p.  8.,  of  training  trees 
upon  a  horizontal  plane;  the  only  effect  of  which 
would  be  to  expose  a  tree  as  much  as  possible  to  the 
effect  of  that  radiation  which  it  is  the  very  purpose 
of  training  to  guard  against." 

All  terraces  should  be  well  drained,  and  the  drains 
are  best  arranged  by  haying  a  series  of  cross  drains 
parallel  to  the  terrace,  as  seen  in  section  lig.  4  and  5, 
and  emptying  into  a  main  drain  which  descends  the 
hill.  These  drains  should  be  placed  as  in  the  figures, 
taking  care  to  leave  the  ground  under  the  wall  solid 
and  undisturbed.  In  forming  terraces  for  vine  cul- 
ture it  is  necessary  to  exercise  care  and  judgment,  so 
as  not  to  bury  the  good  soil  and  leave  the  poor  soil 
for  the  vines  to  grow  in. 


FORMATION    OF    VINE    BORDERS.  65 

YiNB  Borders. — The  formation  of  vine  borders  in 
gardens  is  a  subject  upon  which  the  student  will  find 
no  hick  of  information,  ahnost  every  successful 
gardener  attributing  the  superiority  of  his  grapes  to 
some  peculiarity  in  the  construction  of  his  borders, 
and  innumerable  have  been  the  paper  conflicts  waged 
between  the  advocates  of  carrion,  asphalte,  ventilated 
borders,  etc.,  etc.,  and  their  opponents.  The  '*  car- 
rion "  controversy  has  probably  caused  the  shedding 
of  more  ink  than  any  of  the  others,  the  ultraists  on 
both  sides  being  probably  in  the  wrong.  But, 
after  all,  wc  regard  the  construction  of  proper  vine 
borders  as  no  very  difficult  affair,  and  shall  first  give 
our  own  views  in  tlie  matter  and  afterward  quote 
those  of  other  authors. 

Of  course  in  borders,  as  in  other  cases,  it  is  neces- 
sary that  the  bottom  be  as  dry  as  possible.  This 
being  provided  for,  if  the  soil  is  a  light  mellow  gar- 
den mold,  we  would  rest  content  with  trenching  it 
thoroughly,  and  adding  liberal  supplies  of  litter,  well 
decomposed  manure,  woollen  rags,  and  especially 
bones ;  *  and  if  in  the  bottom  of  each  trench  a  good 

*  In  the  ordinary  course  of  agriculture,  where  "quick  returns,"  if 
not  "smtill  pro6ts"  are  an  important  element  of  success,  bones  when 
used  as  manure  cannot  be  too  thoroughly  pulverized.  Indeed,  it  is 
often  profitable  to  reduce  them  to  the  most  active  form — that  of  a  solu- 
tion—b/  means  of  acids.    But  for  reasons  to  be  hereafter  stated    one 


66  op:  N    AIR    GKAPE    CULTURE. 

layer  of  brickbats,  lime  rubbish,  and  oyster  shells  be 
laid,  it  will  prove  an  advantage.  A  border  prepared 
in  this  simple  manner  will  give  good  satisfaction 
under  any  circumstances. 

If  the  soil  be  heavy  we  would  also  make  liberal 
additions  of  sandy  loam  or  saw-dust. 

But  if  the  location  of  the  border  is  sucb  that  it  can- 
not be  well  drained,  we  would  remove  all  the  soil  to 
the  depth  of  18  inches  over  the  entire  extent  of  the 
border  and  fill  up  at  least  12  inches  of  the  space  w^ith 
stones,  brickbats,  etc.  Over  this  we  would  spread  a 
thin  layer  of  straw  or  brush,  and  after  building  a  wall 
round  the  border  18  to  30  inches  high,  we  would  fill 
in  with  a  rich  soil  resembling  in  composition,  that 
described  above.  The  earth  on  the  outside  might  be 
banked  up  to  the  w^all,  and  either  sodded,  or  merely 
beaten  solid. 

In  all  such  cases,  it  is  evident  that  from  the  narrow 
limits  to  which  we  are  in  general  confined,  the  soil 
ought  to  be  of  the  richest  kind ;  and  as  it  is  nearly 
impossible  to  renew  it  after  the  vines  are  once  started, 
this  richness  should  be  derived  from  materials  calcu- 

great  advantage  to  be  derived  from  the  use  of  bones  in  vine  borders 
is  the  length  of  time  during  which  they  continue  to  act,  and,  there- 
fore, the  largest  and  most  solid  should  be  selected  and  used  without 
being  crushed  or  broken.  This  is  no  argument,  hovveve.r,  against  ih<» 
additional  use  of  bone  dust. 


FORMATION    OF   VINE   BORDERS.  G7 

laud  to  give  more  than  a  mere  temporary  impetus 
to  *]ie  plants.  The  nature  and  action  of  manures  will 
form  the  subject  of  a  future  chapter,  but  we  may  here 
state  tliat  bones,  hair,  woollen  rags,  leather  clippings 
and  similar  matters  are  by  far  the  most  suitable.  For 
the  purpose  of  giving  porosity  to  the  soil,  as  well  as 
furnishing  nutriment  to  the  plants,  nothing  will  be 
found  to  equal  chopped  straw.  Chaif,  or  sawdust 
comes  next  in  order,  and  from  experiments  which  we 
have  made  on  the  subject,  we  do  not  think  the  value 
of  the  latter  is  half  appreciated.  To  dead  animals, 
either  whole  or  divided,  we  have  never  found  any 
objection,  provided  they  were  not  placed  in  direct  con- 
tact with  the  roots  of  the  plant.  'No  danger  is  to  be 
apprehended  of  the  vine"  seeking  them  to  its  own 
detriment.  But  this  more  properly  pertains  to  the 
subject  of  manures.  "We  will  now  give  the  manner 
in  which  the  most  celebrated  grape  growers  construct 
their  borders. 

Miller  (1759)  recommends  good  mellow  soil  with- 
out any  addition. 

Speedily  (1790)  states  in  his  work  :  "As  the  vines 
in  the  hot-house  at  Welbeck  have  been  remarkably 
fruitful  and  vigorous,  I  shall  beg  leave  to  recom- 
mend the  same  kind  of  compost  mold  which  I  make 
use  of  there,  viz.  one-fourth  part  of  garden  mold, 
(a  strong  loam) ;  one-fourth  of  the  sward  or  turf  from 


68  OPEN    AIR    GRAPE    CTTLTURF. 

a  pasture  wliere  tlie  soil  is  a  sandy  loam  ;  one-fourth 
of  the  sweepings  and  scrapings  of  pavements  and  hard 
roads  ;  one-eighth  of  rotten  cow  and  stable  yard  dung 
mixed ;  and  one-eighth  of  vegetable  mohl  from  re- 
duced and  decayed  oak  leaves.  These  are  the  several 
and  respective  proportions.  The  sward  should  be 
laid  in  a  heap  till  the  grass  roots  are  in  a  state  of 
decay,  and  then  turned  over  and  broken  with  a  spade ; 
let  it  then  be  put  to  the  other  materials,  and  the 
whole  worked  together,  till  the  separate  parts  become 
well  and  uniformly  mixed  and  incorporated. 

As  the  vegetable  mold  from  decayed  leaves  can- 
not always  be  obtained,  by  reason  that  the  leaves 
require  two  years  1)efore  they  become  sufficiently 
putrid  and  reduced,  it  therefore  may  sometimes  be 
necessary  to  substitute  some  other  ingredient  in  lieu 
of  this  part  of  the  compost ;  wherefore  it  may  not  be 
inexpedient  to  point  out  the  proper  succedanea. 

Rotten  wood  reduced  to  a  fine  mold,  such  as  is 
often  found  under  fagot  stacks ;  the  scraping  of  tlie 
ground  in  old  woods,  wdiere  the  trees  grow  thick 
toiretner:  mold  out  of  hollow  trees,  and  sawdust 
reduced  to  a  fine  mold,  provided  it  be  not  from  wood 
of  a  resinous  kind,  are  in  part  of  a  similar  nature 
with  vesretable  mohl  from  decaved  leaves,  but  are 
neither  so  rich  nor  so  powerful,  because  the  vegetable 
mold  receives  a  power  by  its  fermentation. 


FORMATION  OF  VINE  BORDERS.  *        69 

Abercrouibie  directs  the  top  slip  of  sandy  loam  from 
an  upland  pasture,  one-third  part ;  unexhausted  brown 
loam  from  a  garden,  one-fourth  part;  scrapings  of 
roads  free  from  clay,  one-sixth  part ;  vegetable  mold 
or  old  tan,  or  rotten  stable  dung,  one-eighth  part; 
shell  marl,  or  mild  lime,  one-twelfth  part.  His  bor- 
ders he  recommends  to  be  from  three  to  five  feet  in 
depth,  and  where  practicable,  not  less  than  four  feet 
wide  within  the  house,  and  not  less  than  ten  feet  wide 
witliout. 

The  vine  borders  at  "Wishaw  House,  Lanarkshire, 
in  a  cold  and  wet  locality,  are  thus  formed  :  Breadth, 
12  feet,  depth  of  soil  18  inches,  under  which  is  laid 
a  foot  of  hard  clinkers,  by  way  of  drainage.  The  soil 
used  is  that  natural  to  the  garden,  which  had  for 
years  been  under  pasture,  and  is  a  remarkably  strong, 
rich  brick-clayey  loam,  with  no  other  preparation 
than  the  addition  of  a  moderate  supply  of  stable  ma- 
nure. In  this  soil  the  best  grapes  ever  produced  in 
Scotland  have  been  grown  for  the  last  three  years. 

A  writer  in  the  "  Gardener's  Chronicle"  (1843,  page 
825)  prepares  his  borders  thus :  The  soil  most  suita- 
ble for  a  vine  border  is  the  surface  spit  from  a  field 
of  an  old  fertile  loam  pasture ;  this  should  be  collected 
some  time  before  it  is  required,  mixed  with  a  good 
proportion  of  cow  dung,  and  the  whole  turned  over 
at  intervals,  three  or  four  times,  and  exj>osed  to  the 


70  OPEN   AIR    GRAPE    CULTURE. 

action  of  the  Aveather.  In  preparing  the  border,  the 
old  earth  should  be  cleared  away  from  the  whole 
space,  to  the  depth  of  about  two  and  a  half  feet,  and 
a  main  drain  cut  parallel  with  the  length  of  the  bor- 
der, at  its  extreme  outer  edge. 

This  should  be  at  least  two  feet  lower  than  the 
bottom  of  tlie  border,  whether  laid  with  concrete, 
chalk  or  bricks,  and  the  bottom  of  the  border  should 
have  a  gentle  inclination  from  the  back  to  the  drain. 
To  render  this  drainage  more  effectual,  cut  small 
drains,  placing  drain  tiles  at  their  bottoms,  at  con- 
venient distances,  to  run  in  a  slanting  direction  from 
the  back  of  the  border  into  the  main  drain,  the  latter 
being  six  inches  below  them.  A  few  turfs  should 
be  laid  over  the  tile  drains  with  the  grassy  side  down ; 
the  fresh  soil  may  tlien  be  filled  in,  taking  care  to 
keep  the  roughest  part  near  the  bottom. 

Tliree  cubic  yards  of  compost  are  enough  for  each 
vine ;  this  will  admit  of  tlie  border  being  ten  feet 
wide,  or  with  forty-eight  cubic  feet,  you  may  form  it 
only  six  feet  w^ide  in  the  first  instance,  and  add  six 
feet  more  as  the  vines  extend. 

Roberts,  the  great  advocate  for  carrion,  gives  the 
following  description  of  his  border :  "  The  compost 
and  manures  I  most  recommend,  and  which  I  made 
use  of,  are  two  parts  the  parings  of  a  piece  of  old 
pasture  land,  a  strong  loam  laid  up  one  year  (or  till 


FORMATION    OF   VINE   BORDERS.  71 

the  sward  is  half  decomposed),  in  the  form  of  a  potato 
hod,  close  covered  in  with  soil,  and  never  turned ;  one 
part,  the  turf  with  four  inches  of  the  soil,  of  a  looser 
texture  laid  up  for  the  same  period,  and  not  turned, 
as  before ;  an  eighth  part  scrapings  of  the  highways 
formed  from  limestone,  or  other  hard  material ;  and 
the  other  eighth  part,  half  decomposed  horse  or  cow 
dung.  I  am  not  an  advocate  for  turning  over  and 
mixing  the  materials  promiscuously  together,  as,  by 
often  turning,  the  compost  becomes  too  solid,  losing  a 
great  portion  of  its  fertilizing  property  by  such  re- 
peated interpilxture ;  and  unless  it  be  of  a  very  sandy, 
loose  texture,  the  border  will,  in  a  few  years,  become 
impervious  both  to  water,  and  to  atmospheric  air, 
wliich  are  of  incalculable  benefit  to  the  growth  of  the 
vine.  I  would  recommend  the  autumn,  if  the  weather 
be  dry,  to  prepare  to  fill  in  your  border. 

"  A  month  previous  to  filling  your  border,  provide  a 
quantity  of  carrion,  cattle  dying  by  accident,  disease, 
etc.,  which  I  am  sorry  to  say,  has,  of  late  years, 
been  too  common  an  occurrence.  If  you  have  col- 
lected it  some  time  before  hand,  have  it  cut  into  small 
pieces  and  laid  up  in  soil  till  the  time  of  using.  It 
emits  a  very  nauseous  effluvia,  but  this  must  be  borne, 
for  this  is  the  jpabulum  to  produce  the  nectar  of 
Bacchus.  When  all  is  ready,  and  the  weather  favor- 
able, proceed  at  one  end  of  your  border,  wheeling  in 


t2  OPEN    AIK    GEAl'E    CULTUKE. 

and  mixing  the  materials  in  proportion  as  tliey  stand 
to  each  other  in  my  previous  directions,  on  no  account 
breaking  the  materials  in  mixing,  but  turn  them  in  as 
rough  as  possible,  adding  one  good  sized  horse  or  cow 
carcass  to  every  ten  or  twelve  square  yards,  using 
caution,  and  not  bringing  it  to  the  surface  of  the 
border  within  one  foot  as  its  assistance  is  not  wanted 
the  first  year.  What  I  have  here  recommended  is 
my  practice  adopted  at  this  place,  the  result  of  which, 
I  dare  presume  to  say,  has  surprised  all,  both  gentle- 
men and  practical  gardeners,  who  have  witnessed  it." 

Fiske  Allen,  one  of  the  best  American  culturists 
of  the  vine  under  glass,  constructs  his  borders  thus  : 

"  If  the  soil  is  very  poor,  or  unsuitable  for  the  pur- 
pose, so  as  to  require  to  be  removed  entirely,  then 
a  compost  prej)ared  thus  is  recommended ;  one-half 
to  be  the  top  soil  of  an  old  pasture,  one-quarter  to 
be  bone,  or  some  other  strong  manure ;  one-eighth 
oyster  shells,  or  lime  and  brick  rubbish  ;  one-eighth 
rotten  manure ;  these  articles  thrown  together  in  a 
heap,  and  so  to  remain  until  decomposed  and  amalga- 
mated, when  they  should  be  placed  in  the  border  and 
thrown  loosely  togetlier.  My  borders  having  the 
most  slaughter-house  manure,  or  whole  bones  of  ani- 
mals in  their  composition  still  continue,  as  they  ever 
have  done,  to  produce  the  best  fruit  and  the  largest 
crops. 


FORMATION    OF    VINE   BOKDERS.  73 

"  It  is  unnecessary  to  attempt  to  give  rules  for  every 
kind  of  soil.  One  must  use  his  own  judgment,  and 
make  his  border  to  consist,  as  near  as  can  be,  of  the 
above  ingredients.  He  must  bear  in  mind  that,  if 
his  soil  is  a  stiff  clayey  loam,  he  must  add  freely  of 
such  materials  as  will  lighten  and  give  permeability 
to  it.  If  the  soil  is  light,  sandy  or  gravelly,  with  the 
manure  should  be  added  a  proportion  of  clay  or 
clayey  loam.  The  rich  alluvion  soil,  abounding  in 
our  western  and  soutliwestern  States,  will  not  require 
any  of  these  strong  manures.  If  anything  is  requi- 
site to  improve  them,  it  must  be  shells,  charcoal, 
leaves,  small  stones,  or  gravel — such  materials  as 
will  loosen  the  soil." 

But  that  the  reader  may  not  be  discouraged  by 
these  extravagant  demands  we  quote  the  following 
ft  om  Iloare : 

"  But  if  vines  could  not  be  planted  with  any  pros- 
pect of  success  in  any  other  situations  than  in  bor- 
ders set  apart  for  that  purpose,  but  a  very  small  quan- 
tity of  grapes  could  be  grown,  compared  with  w^hat 
the  country  is  capable  of  producing.  Innumerable 
instances  occur  throughout  the  country,  and  espe- 
cially in  towns  and  their  suburban  districts,  in  which 
w^alls,  cottages,  houses,  and  various  descriptions  of 
brick    and    stone   erections   present   very   favorable 

aspects  for  the  training  of  vines,  but  which  neverthe- 

4 


74  OPEN   AIR   GRAPE   CULTURE. 

less  are  so  situated  locally,  as  to  possess  little  or  no 
soil  at  all  on  the  surface  adjoining  their  sites ;  the 
ground  being  either  paved  with  bricks  or  stone,  or  per- 
haj)s  trodden  so  hard,  as  to  be  apparently  incapable 
of  yielding  sustenance  to  any  vegetable  production. 

"  In  all  such  cases,  however,  if  the  ground  adjoining 
the  site  of  the  wall  or  building  be  opened  to  the 
extent  of  eighteen  inches  square,  and  as  many  deep, 
it  will  be  sufficient  to  admit  the  roots  of  a  young 
vine,  which  must  be  pruned  to  suit  that  space.  K  a 
wider  and  deeper  space  can  be  made,  it  will  of  course 
be  better  ;  but  if  not,  that  will  do.  After  the  sides 
and  bottom  have  been  loosened  as  much  as  possible, 
the  vine  may  be  planted  and  the  hole  filled  up  with 
two-thirds  of  rich  loamy  earth,  and  one-third  of  road 
scrajDings,  previously  mixed  well  together,,  and  if 
necessary  the  surface  covering,  whether  of  stone, 
brick,  or  otherwise,  may  be  restored  again  to  its  for- 
mer state,  provided  a  space  about  six  inches  square 
be  left  open  for  the  stem  to  swell  in  during  its  future 
growth.  Yines  planted  in  such  situations,  will  in  gene- 
ral do  well,  although  their  growth  will  not  be  so  rapid 
as  when  planted  under  more  favorable  circumstances. 

"  In  all  cases  where  vines  are  planted  against  any 
description  of  buildings,  their  roots  push  as  soon  as 
possible  under  the  foundations,  being  attracted  thi- 
ther by  the  warm  air  which  is  there  generated  ;  and 


FORMATION    OF    VINE    BORDERS.  75 

such  situations  being  also  diy,  from  the  excavations 
wliicli  have  been  made,  offer  to  the  roots  the  same 
protection  from  excessive  moisture,  as  the  substratum 
of  a  well-prepared  border.  The  same  may  be 
observed  of  vines  planted  against  walls,  the  founda- 
tions of  which  possess  similar  advantages,  although 
in  a  more  limited  degree.  Hence  the  fact  may  be 
inferred  that  vines  planted  in  such  situations,  without 
any  previous  preparation  of  the  soil,  will  frequently 
grow  as  luxuriantly,  and  produce  as  fine  grapes  as 
those  planted  in  rich  and  well-prepared  borders. 

"  Indeed,  it  is  hardly  possible  to  plant  a  vine  in  any 
situation  in  which  it  will  not  thrive,  provided  its  roots 
can  by  any  means  push  themselves  into  a  dry  place, 
and  the  aspect  be  such  as  to  afford  to  its  branches  a 
sufficient  portion  of  the  sun's  rays  to  elaborate  the 
juices  of  the  plant. 

"  The  truth  is,  that  the  roots  of  the  vine  possess  an 
extraordinary  power  of  adapting  themselves  to  any 
situation  in  which  they  may  be  planted,  provided  it 
be  a  dry  one. 

"  They  will  ramble  in  every  direction  in  search  of 
food,  and  extract  nourishment  from  sources  apparently 
the  most  barren.  In  short,  they  are  the  best  caterers 
that  can  possibly  be  imagined,  for  they  will  grow, 
and  even  thrive  luxuriantly,  where  almost  every  des- 
cription of  plant  or  tree  would  inevitably  starve." 


70  OPEN    AIK    GRAPE    CULTUKE 


CHAPTER    lY. 


PLANTING. 


Pkoper  Age  of  Yines  for  Planting. — ^Wliere 
young  vines  have  "been  raised  from  cuttings,  in  the 
open  ground,  two  years  old  probably  is  the  best  age 
to  select  for  planting  out.  Plants  one  year  from  the 
cutting  have  rarely  made  sufficient  roots  to  bear 
transplanting  well,  and  at  a  greater  age  than  two 
years  the  roots  are  so  long  that  they  generally  receive 
much  mutilation  in  taking  up — thus  losing  their 
most  fibrous  and  valuable  part,  viz.,  that  at  the  ex- 
tremities. Of  course  older  vines,  carefully  taken  up 
and  as  carefully  planted,  will  come  into  bearing  in 
shorter  time  than  younger  plants,  and  thus  give  more 
satisfactory  results  where  expense  is  no  objection. 
But  where  a  large  number  of  vines  are  to  be  set  out, 
two-year  old  plants,  as  above  stated,  or  one-year  old 
plants  raised  from  eyes  in  the  spring,  and  grown  all 
summer  in  the  open  air,  have  decided  advantages  on 
the  score  both  of  economy  and  ease  of  planting. 
Indeed,  we  should  prefer  plain  cuttings,  planted  two 
to  each  stake,  to  one-year  old  vines  raised  from  cut- 


TLANTING.  77 

tings  in  the  open  ground.  Plants  raised  from  eyes 
in  pots,  early  in  spring,  and  transferred  in  summer  to 
tlieir  final  location,  do  very  well. 

PK<-)rEK  Season  for  Planting. — ^The  proper  season 
for  planting  depends  mucli  upon  local  circumstances 
— soil  and  climate  being  cliiefly  to  be  considered.  In 
a  few  instances,  were  tlie  soil  is  light  and  the  climate 
mild,  it  may  do  to  risk  fall  planting,  but  under  all 
ordinary  circumstances  we  should  advise  this  opera- 
tion to  be  deferred  till  pretty  late  in  the  spring,  and 
this  advice  is  founded  upon  the  uniformly  favorable 
results  wliicli  have  attended  this  plan  in  our  own 
experience,  as  opposed  to  frequent  want  of  success  at 
other  times.  Plants  set  out  even  early  in  the  fall 
rarely  outstrip  those  planted  in  the  following  spring, 
and  when  autumn  planting  is  delayed  much  beyond 
the  fall  of  the  leaf,  the  plants  frequently  fail  if  the 
winters  are  severe. 

The  reason  of  this  probably  depends  upon  the  fact 
that  the  roots  of  all  plants  when  vegetation  is  active, 
are  enabled  to  resist  adverse  influences  which  would 
prove  fatal  to  them  when  dormant.  Thus  tlie  vine 
when  growing  will  revel  in  a  degree  of  moisture 
which  would  destroy  it,  or  at  least  prove  very  injuri- 
ous during  the  winter  months.  Now  the  roots  of  all 
trees  are  more  or  less  injured  by  transplanting,  and 


78  OPEN   AIR   GRAPE   CULTURE. 

incipient  decay  is  apt  to  supervene  unless  tlie  vitality 
of  tlie  plant  is  sufficient  to  withstand  it.  K  this 
should  occur  wlien  the  plant  is  dormant,  there  is  no 
influence  at  work  to  resist  the  evil.  But  if  such 
injuries  should  be  inflicted  in  spring,  when  vegeta- 
tion is  just  commencing,  thej  are  quickly  and  readily 
repaired. 

With  care  vines  may  be  transplanted  even  when 
their  leaves  are  well  developed  ;  but  under  such  cir- 
cumstances the  vine,  from  its  great  evaporative 
powers,  makes  a  heavy  draft  upon  the  roots  and  is 
rather  impatient  of  removal  after  vegetation  has  made 
some  progress.  We  have  had  the  best  success,  however, 
when  the  plant  was  set  out  so  late  in  the  spring  that 
the  buds  were  starting,  but  just  before  they  were  fully 
burst.  About  this  time  the  soil  is  getting  gradually 
warmer,  and  although  it  does  not  reach  a  sufiiciently 
high  temperature  to  induce  the  formation  of  roots  in 
cuttings  before  June  or  July,  still  it  is  warm  enough 
to  allow  of  the  healthy  action  of  the  roots  in  a  grow- 
ing plant. 

In  the  above  cases  the  vines  were  set  out  immedi- 
ately after  being  dug  up.  Where  it  is  necessary  to 
transport  them  any  distance,  it  would  undoubtedly 
be  better  to  take  them  up  earlier,  before  the  sap 
begins  to  move.  They  need  not  be  planted  for  some 
time,  but  may  be  merely  heeled  m^  as  it  is  called. 


PLANTING.  79 

that  is,  placed  in  a  shallow  trench  and  well  c(/vered 
witli  dry  soil.  A  covering  of  straw  or  leaves  in  addi- 
tion will  do  no  harm  if  the  mice  do  not  make  it  a 
harbor. 

Distance  Apart. — ^The  distance  apart  at  which 
vines  should  be  planted  will,  of  course,  depend  not 
only  upon  the  variety,  but  upon  the  object  for  which 
they  are  set  out.  In  Europe  they  are  placed  at  all 
distances  from  30  inches  to  30  feet.  In  the  Ohio 
vineyards,  where  they  are  usually  fastened  to  stakes, 
the  plants  are  placed  about  four  or  five  feet  apart ;  but 
in  the  northern  States,  where  vines  are  trained  upon 
trellises,  we  should  prefer  to  set  them  out  in  rows  6 
feet  apart,  and  the  vines  standing  7  or  8  feet  apart  iu 
the  rows.  This  distance  enables  us  to  keep  the  vines 
close  enough  and  short  enough  for  all  practical  pur- 
poses, while  it  does  not  require  more  time  to  cover 
tlic  trellis  than  is  'absolutely  necessary  to  bring  the 
vine  into  proper  order  for  bearing.  The  rows  are 
also  sufficiently  far  apart  to  allow  of  horse  labor 
being  used — a  considerable  saving  being  thus 
effected. 

Tlie  number  of  vines  required  to  plant  an  acre  will 
be  seen  from  the  following  table,  which  has  often 
been  published,  but  which  it  may  be  well  to  insert 
here. 


80 


OPEN   AIR   GRAPE   CULTURE. 


PLANTS  TO   THE   ACRR.      ' 

3x3  requires  4,840 
3,630 
2,722 
2,178 
1,742 
1,452 
1,210 
1,023 


4  X 

3 

a 

4  X 

4 

(( 

5  X 

4 

(( 

5  X 

5 

(( 

6  X 

5 

u 

6  X 

6 

u 

7  X 

6 

a 

7  X 

7 

u 

PLANTS  TO   THE   AORB. 

8x7 

requires 

788 

8x8 

a 

680 

9x7 

a 

691 

9x8 

(( 

605 

9x9 

(( 

537 

10  X  7 

u 

622 

10  X    8 

(( 

544 

10  X   9 

u 

484 

10  X  10 

u 

435 

Marking  off  the  Ground. — Where  vines  are  set 
out  at  from  4  to  6  feet  apart  and  trained  to  stakes, 
the  following  directions,  taken  from  the  "American 
Philosophical  Transactions,'^  and  frequently  quoted 
(generally  without  credit),  are  as  good  as  any : 

"  Your  squares  being  laid  out,  and  having  con- 
cluded how  far  your  vines  shall  stand  every  way 
from  one  another,  in  which  every  man  is  to  please 
himself,  you  stretch  a  line  of  proper  length,  and 
stitch  small  pieces  of  red,  blue,  green,  or  any  other 
colored  cloth,  at  such  distance  from  each  other  as  you 
mean  to  plant  the  vines.  I  will  suppose  8  feet, 
because  upon  the  most  mature  deliberation,  I  think 
that  the  best  distance  for  vines  to  stand  in  this  coun- 
try, as  I  shall  afterward  show  more  fully.  The  line 
being  ready,  stretch  it  along  the  head  or  upper  part 


PLANTING.  81 

of  your  square,  so  that  a  rag  appears  at  each  corner, 
drive  down  a  stake  at  every  rag.  This  done,  move 
your  line  down  to  the  lower  side  of  the  sqnare,  which 
is  opposite  to  the  first,  and  stretch  your  line  along 
that,  having  a  rag  at  each  corner,  and  drive  down  a 
stake  at  every  rag.  Then  turn  your  line  the  other 
way  up  and  down,  and  fasten  your  line  to  the  upper 
and  lower  outside  stakes,  so  that  a  rag  be  at  each 
stake,  and  drive  down  a  stake  at  every  rag,  and  so  on 
from  stake  to  stake,  till  the  whole  he  completed.  If 
you  have  been  careful  not  to  disturb  or  move  the 
line,  when  you  drove  down  the  stakes,  and  have 
driven  them  all  on  the  same  side  of  the  line,  your 
square  will  be  uniform,  and  the  stakes  near  the 
ground  wdll  range  exactly  every  way." 

Where  the  vines  are  trained  to  trellises,  it  is  not 
essential  that  they  should  be  straight  both  ways  as 
when  tied  to  stakes,  it  being  necessary  that  the  trel- 
lises be  parallel  and  equi-distant  only. 

To  make  them  so,  a  very  good  plan  is  as  follows : 
Prepare  a  rod,  fig.  6",  a  few  inches  more  than 
twenty  feet  long,  and  having  a  small  hole  {a)  bored 
through  one  end,  then  bore  a  similar  hole  {c)  tw^elve 
feet  from  the  first ;  one  (^),  16  feet  from  the  first ;  and 
one  {d)  20  feet  from  the  first.  Having  decided  upon 
the  direction  of  the  first  row  and  divided  it  into 
spaces  corresponding  to  the  distance  the  plants  are  to 


82  OPEN   AIR   GEAPE   CULTURE. 

stand  from  each  other,  drive  in  stakes  a  a  at  each 
end,  and  measuring  off  16  feet,  drive  in  other  two, 
B  B.     The  heads  of  these  should  be  made  level  with 


Fig.  6. 

the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  headless  nails  should 
then  be  driven  into  them — the  two  nails  (a  and  b)  at 
each  end  being  exactly  16  feet  apart.  Now  place  the 
rod  on  one  of  the  outside  stakes,  so  that  the  nail  will 
pass  through  the  first  hole  {a)  and  drive  a  peg  into 
the  hole  in  the  rod  12  feet  from  the  end.  With  this 
peg  mark  a  curve  (^),  and  then  placing  the  end  {a)  of 
the  rod  on  the  stake  b,  mark  another  curve  [d)  cross- 
ing the  first  by  means  of  a  pin  passing  through  the 
hole  {d).  A  line  (a  d),  drawn  from  a  through  the  cross- 
ing of  these  curves  will  be  perfectly  square  with  the 


PLANTmG.  83 

"first  row.  Divide  the  lines  (a  d)  into  spaces  equal  to 
the  width  of  the  rows,  and  the  lines  joining  the  cor- 
responding divisions  will  be  the  proper,  lines  of  the 
trellises. 

As  many  stakes  or  poles,  6  or  8  feet  long,  should  be 
provided  as  there  are  vines,  and  these  should  be  set 
at  the  points  where  the  vines  are  to  be  placed  before 
the  holes  are  dug.  These  stakes  will  serve  during 
tlie  first  two  years  and  will  save  the  tear  and  wear  of 
trellises  as  well  as  the  interest  on  the  investment, 
besides  relieving  some  of  the  hurry  incident  to  the 
work  of  the  first  spring,  which  is  always  more  press- 
ing than  that  of  any  succeeding  one. 

Digging  the  Holes. — In  digging  the  holes  it  will 
be  well  to  take  up  the  stakes  one  at  a  time,  and  after 
digging  the  hole  to  replace  the  stake,  driving  it 
slightly  into  the  soil  at  the  bottom.  By  so  doing  the 
centres  *of  the  holes,  or  at  least  the  points  where  the 
stems  of  the  vines  should  come,  will  be  easily  kept, 
whereas  if  all  the  stakes  were  removed  before  die:- 
ging  the  holes,  it  would  be  troublesome  to  get  them 
exactly  right  again.  The  insertion  of  the  stake, 
before  planting  the  vine,  not  only  aids  us  in  this,  but 
prevents  the  possibility  of  injuring  the  roots  by  driv- 
ing a  sharp  stake  through  them,  a  thing  which  is 
often  done.      The  holes  should  be  dug  from  12  to  24 


84  OPEX    AIR    GRAPE    CULTURE. 

inches  deep  and  about  3  feet  in  diameter,  or  as  wide 
as  the  distance  to  which  the  roots  extend. 

Taking  up  the  Plants. — "When  plants  are  pur- 
chased, this  operation  is  generally  left  to  the  nursery- 
man who  not  unfrequently  commits  it  to  men  who 
care  very  little  how  it  is  done  so  that  they  get  the 
plants  out  of  the  ground.  But  when  we  reflect  that 
a  small  amount  of  care  in  taking  up  a  plant  will 
often  cause  a  difference  of  a  year  or  more  in  its  sub- 
sequent growth,  it  will  be  evident  that  the  labor,  time 
and  consequent  interest  on  capital  which  will  be  ulti- 
mately saved  by  devoting  a  little  attention  to  this 
matter  will  more  than  pay  for  the  few  extra  minutes 
required. 

In  taking  up  a  vine,  or  any  plant,  it  is  well  to 
remember  that  the  most  efficient  portion  of  the  roots 
is  that  which  lies  at  the  extreme  ends — those  minute 
fibres  or  spongioles  which  have  been  aptly  termed 
the  mouths  of  the  plant.  In  old  vines,  where  the 
roots  extend  to  a  great  distance,  these  fibres  are  gene- 
rally left  in  the  soil,  and  the  plant  presents  but  a  few 
smooth,  fibreless,  cord-like  roots  from  which  spongi- 
oles must  be  emitted  ere  the  plant  can  derive  any 
nourishment  from  them. 

But  in  young  plants  the  roots  have  not  yet  extend- 
ed so  far  as  to  prevent  their  being  easily  taken  up 


PLANTING.  85 

without  any  great  loss,  and  here  we  have  one  reason 
why  we  prefer  young  plants  to  old  ones.  A  con- 
sideration of  this  fact  will  also  lead  ns  to  follow  out 
each  root  to  its  termination  and  so  secure  all  the 
Hbres  possible.  Where  the  plants  have  been  started 
in  sandy,  friable  soil  this  is  not  a  laborious  task,  but 
where  the  soil  is  clayey  and  plastic,  it  is  often  a  work 
of  considerable  difficulty. 

In  any  case,  however,  the  purchaser  should  see 
that  the  roots  are  taken  up  as  completely  and  entirely 
as  possible,  and  it  will  also  be  well  to  prune  all  that 
are  bruised,  broken,  or  diseased — taking  such  injured 
parts  off  with  a  clean  cut.  As  these  injuries  can 
never  be  so  well  seen,  or  so  well  remedied  as  when 
the  plant  is  newly  taken  up,  this  is  the  best  time  to 
attend  to  them ;  and  this  forms  another  reason  why 
the  purchaser  should,  if  possible,  give  this  matter  hi? 
personal  supervision.  They  should  then  be  dipped 
in  puddle  made  of  good  garden  soil,  stirred  up  with 
water ;  clay  is  frequently  used  for  this  purpose,  and  so 
is  cow  dung,  but  very  injudiciously.  The  former  is 
too  tough  and  hard  and  j^revents  the  formation  of 
young  roots,  while  the  latter  (as  it  is  commonly  used) 
is  caustic  and  destructive  to  the  tender  fibres.  "We 
have  tried  all  three  substances  and  are  confident  that 
nothing  will  be  found  equal  to  good  common  soil. 

If  the  nursery  in  which  the  plants  have  been  raised 


86  OPEN    AIR   GRAPE    CULTURE. 

is  on  the  same  premises  as  the  vineyard,  the  vines  may 
be  eitlier  rolled  up  in  coarse  sacking,  or,  a  few  being 
taken  up  at  a  time,  they  may  be  plunged  in  a  pail  or 
tub  filled  with  puddle.  But  if  they  are  to  be  sent  to 
a  distance,  they  should  be  packed  in  damp  (not  moist) 
moss  (sphagnum)  or  good  clean  straw,  and  either 
made  into  light  bundles  or  firmly  packed  in  boxes. 

The  vines  having  been  carefidly  taken  up  and  the 
holes  properly  prepared  to  receive  them,  the  next 
step  is  to  set  them  out,  and  in  doing  this  the  follow- 
ing points  require  special  attention  : 

1.  That  the  roots  be  disposed  in  tlieir  new  location 
as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  same  position  that  they 
occupied  before  their  removal. 

2.  That  some  fine,  friable,  mellow  mold  be  placed 
in  immediate  contact  with  the  roots. 

3.  That  no  fresh  manure  or  decomposing  organic 
matter  be  allowed  to  come  in  direct  contact  with  the 
plant  under  any  circumstances  whatever. 

4.  That  the  soil  be  firmly  packed  about  the  roots, 
no  air  spaces  being  left.  In  doing  this,  however,  do 
not  tread  down  the  plant  with  your  whole  weight,  as 
you  will  thus  be  very  apt  to  tear  oif  some  of  the 
roots,  but  work  the  soil  in  with  3^our  hand  or  a 
pointed  stick. 

In  general  it  will  be  well  to  insert  the  plants  a 
little  deeper  in  the  soil  than  they  wei'e  previously, 


PLANTING. 


87 


as,  owing  to  tlie  mutilation  wliicli  of  necessity  takes 
place,  a  greater  draught  is  made  upon  the  roots  for 
moisture  than  they  can  support  when  thus  shortened, 
if  they  are  placed  near  the  surface.  But  this  point 
requires  the  exercise  of  discretion,  and  a  good  sub- 
stitute for  deeper  planting  will  be  thorough  mulch- 
ing. 

As  roots  always  spring  from  a  bud  or  joint,  and 
rarely  from  the  internode  or  portion  between  the  buds, 
the  mode  of  propagation  by  which  the  plant  has  been 
produced  will  exert  considerable  inflttence  upon  the 
modus  ojjyerandi   of  setting  it  out. 


^mk 


Pig.  T. 


In  fig.  7  is  shown  the  proper  disposition  of  the 
roots  of  a  young  plant  raised  from  a  seed  or  from  a 
single  eye.  In  this  case  the  roots  all  proceed  from 
within  a  short  distance  of  each  other  and  from  the 
base  of  the  stem.  In  setting  out  such  a  plant,  the 
better  plan  is  to    throw  a  shovelful  or  two  of  fine 


88  OPE^   AIR    GRAPE    CULTURE. 

mold  on  the  bottom  of  the  hole,  so  as  to  form  s. 
conical  heap,  the  top  of  which  should  be  just  at  a 
suitable  height  to  support  the  base  of  the  stem  in  its 
proper  position.  Then,  having  placed  the  plant  on 
the  top  of  this  little  mound,  spread  out  all  the  roots 
equally  and  naturally  over  its  side  and  fill  in  with 
pulverized  soil,  being  careful  to  pack  the  soil  firmly 
around  the  roots,  yet  still  leaving  it  mellow  and 
porous. 

The  soil  ought  to  be  raised  some  inches  above  the 
surrounding  ground,  the  aroount  depending  upon  the 
size  and  depth  of  the  hole  dug.  All  filling  in  is  apt 
to  sink,  and  unless  this  is  done,  the  plant  may  be 
found  after  a  few  weeks  to  be  too  low.  Some,  how- 
ever, prefer  to  have  the  plant  set  in  a  hollov/,  claim- 
ing that  a  basin  is  thus  formed  which  catches  and 
retains  the  rain.  We  would  rather  rely  upon  good 
mulching  for  obtaining  the  requisite  amount  of  mois- 
ture, but  if  this  is  dispensed  with,  and  recourse  had 
to  the  former  plan,  we  should  prefer  to  have  the  hol- 
low or  basin  in  the  form  of  a  ring  around  the  edge  of 
the  hole,  leavino^  the  stem  surrounded  with  a  little 
mound  which  will  shed  the  rain.  The  stem  is  thus 
kept  dry,  and  the  moisture  is  guided  just  where  it  is 
wanted,  viz.  :  to  the  extremity  of  the  roots.  Figure 
8  gives  a  sectional  view  of  the  soil  so  arranged. 

When  vines  have  been  raised  from  cuttings  con 


PLANTING. 


89 


Fig.  8. 


sisting  of  several  eyes  or  joints,  tliere  will  in  general 
be  several  layers  of  roots — the  plants  having  the  ap- 
pearance shown  in  Fig.  9. 


In  this  case  it  will  be  necessary  to  proceed  as 
directed  for  plants  from  eyes  in  so  far  as  the  lower 
layer  of  roots  is  concerned — the  upper  layers  being 
held  lip  while  this  is  done.  After  the  first  layer  has 
been  properly  covered,  the  next  layer  is  laid  on  the 
surface  of  the  soil  which  covers  the  lower  layer,  and 
after  being  properly  disposed  are  covered  in  turn. 


00  OPEN    AIR    GRAPE    CULTURE. 

wliicL.  process  is  repeated  until  all  the  roots  are  im- 
bedded in  the  soil. 

Plants  raised  from  layers  in  general  demand  a 
treatment  peculiar  to  themselves.  If  thej  have  been 
produced  as  in  Fig*.  44,  page  176,  thej  will,  of  course, 
be  set  out  in  the  main  as  shown  in  Fig.  7.  But  if 
they  have  been  raised  in  the  open  ground,  and  the 
roots  have  been  produced  from  several  joints  or  buds, 
it  will  be  found  that  while  the  roots  are  not  disposed 
in  regularly-ascending  layers,  yet  that  some  are  lower 
than  others — the  whole,  however,  in  general  lying  in 
one  plane  which  is  greatly  inclined  to  the  surface  of 
the  earth.  For  such  plants  it  will  in  general  be  best 
to  dig  a  trench  or  oblong  hole,  and  instead  of  raising 
a  heap  in  the  centre  to  lay  the  soil  in  the  bottom,  so 
as  to  form  a  regularly  inclined  bed.  The  plant  being 
placed  on  this  bed  of  fine  soil,  the  roots  are  all  ar- 
ranged over  it  at  once  and  covered  in  without  further 
trouble. 

In  all  these  cases  it  will,  of  course,  be  necessary 
that  the  stem  of  the  plant  be  placed  sufficiently  near 
to  the  stake  which  has  been  inserted  in  the  hole  to 
allow  of  its  being  tied  thereto  without  much  bending 
or  wrenching,  and  if  the  weather  be  dry  it  will  be 
necessary  to  give  the  plants  a  good  watering  at  the 
time  they  are  set  out. 

When   plants  are  received  in  pots — having  been 


PLANTING.  .  91 

grown  therein  from  eyes  or  grafts — it  is  always  best 
after  taking  tliem  out  to  remove  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  soil,  and  spread^  out  the  roots.  This  is 
necessary  from  the  fact  that  the  roots  of  plants  grown 
in  pots  form  a  series  of  spirals  round  the  outside  of 
the  ball  (between  the  earth  and  the  pot),  and  if  set 
out  in  the  ground  just  as  they  are  taken  from  the 
pot,  it  requires  a  long  time  before  the  roots  change 
this  habit  and  acquire  a  proper  direction  and  healthy 
condition.  The  plants  should  be  well  watered  before 
being  taken  from  the  pots,  and  they  should  be  set  in 
fine,  loose  soil,  being  exposed  to  the  air  as  little  as 
possible.  After  planting,  it  will,  of  course,  be  well 
to  be  liberal  with  water,  and  liquid  manure  used  in  a 
very  diluted  state  w^ill  prove  highly  beneficial  after 
the  first  week. 

Plants  for  setting  out  are  nsually  obtained  in  pots 
in  June,  July,  or  the  beginning  of  August,  and  as  it 
frequently  hapj)ens  that  at  that  time  the  earth  and 
air  are  so  dry  as  to  endanger  the  life  of  a  young  vine, 
if  treated  as  just  directed,  we  have  sometimes  found 
it  advisable  after  receiving  them  from  the  nursery  to 
set  out  the  pots  (without  removing  the  plants)  in  the 
open  ground,  plunging  them  about  two  inches  below 
the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  leaving  them  there  until 
a  few  rainy  days  occur,  when  the  pots  are  taken  up 
and  the  plants  removed  and  properly  set  out. 


OPEN   AIR   GRAPE   CULTURE. 


CHAPTEE  Y. 


CARE   OF   THE   VINES   DURING   THE   FIRST,    SECOND   AND 


THIRD   YEARS. 


The  roots  of  the  vine  having  been  properly  cared  for, 
the  branches  may  now  be  pruned.  Unless  where 
very  large  and  well-rooted  vines  have  been  planted 
expressly  for  immediate  bearing,  all  •the  secondary 
shoots  should  be  cut  away  and  the  main  stem 
shortened  to  an  extent  depending  upon  its  cha- 
racter. 

As  usually  received  from  the  nursery,  one  or  two 
year  old  plants,  if  raised  from  cuttings,  consist  of  a 
short  stem  two  to  six  inches  long,  one  or  two  shoots 
and  a  largo  quantity  of  spray  or  small  twigs,  consist- 
ing of  tlie  laterals  of  last  year.  If  raised  from  eyes, 
there  will  in  general  be  but  one  shoot,  with  perhaps 
a  few  laterals.  Under  any,  circumstances  the  plants 
ought  to  be  cut  back  at  planting  to  two  good  eyes,  and 
as  soon  as  they  have  made  a  few  leaves,  cut  off  the 
upper  one  as  close  as  possible  to  the  one  left,  taking 
care,  however,  not  to  injure  the  base  of  the  remaining 
shoot,  which  ought  to  be  kept  tied  up  to  the  stake 


CARE    OF   THE   VINES    DURING    THE   FIKST   TEAK.         93 

as  fast  as  it  sliows  symptoms  of  leaning  over/^    The 


Fig.   10. 

base  of  the  shoot  which  is  retained  (that  is,  the  point 

*  It  is  recommended  by  some  respectable  authorities,  to  allow  the 
young  plants  to  remain  untied  during  the  first  year,  urging  as  a 
reason  that  more  vigorous  stems  will  thus  be  obtained.  But,  although 
the  experiments  of  Knight  have  proved  the  advantage  of  bending  and 
motion  to  most  young  trees,  yet  the  vine  naturally  seeks  support 
from  surrounding  objects,  and  will  in  most  cases,  receive  more  injury 
from  dirt,  and  abrasion  by  being  blown  about  and  rubbing  upon  the 
ground  than  will  balance  the  good  derived  from  the  motion  imparted. 

But  as  we  may  observe  that  the  vine  is  adapted  to  cUng,  not  to  the 
thick  and  stout  bodies  of  trees,  but  to  slender  branches,  it  is  obvious 
that  nature  provides  fully  for  sustaining  the  plant  beyond  the  reach  of 
injury,  without  interfering  with  the  action  of  the  wind  in  producing 
motion.  Hence,  in  the  construction  of  trellises  and  the  choice  of  stakes, 
it  will  be  well  to  select  flexible  material,  always  provided  it  is  strong 
enough  to  avoid  all  danger  of  being  blown  down  ;  stout  rods  or  poles 
are  therefore  to  be  preferred  to  sawed  lumber,  and  we  may  add  they  are 
also  cheaper.  From  the  above  facts  we  may  also  gather  the  reason  why 
wires  are  to  be  preferred  to  wooden  slats  in  the  construction  of  trellises. 


94:  OPEN   AIR    GRAPE   CULTURE. 

at  wliicli  it  springs  from  the  old  wood)  should  be  as  low 
down  as  possible — if  even  with  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  so  much  the  better. 

A  plant  such  as  we  have  described,  is  shown  in  Fig. 
10  as  it  is  usually  received  from  the  nursery.  The 
same  plant   properly  pruned   is    shown  in  Fig.  11. 


Rg.  11. 

Many  are  afraid  to  cut  back  so  severely,  but  it  is  the 
only  true  method. 

The  object  of  leaving  tAvo  eyes  at  first,  is  merely  to 
guard  against  accidents.  If  we  could  be  insured 
against  them,  the  upper  one  would  be  better  away. 
Little  else  can  be  done  during  the  first  year  than  to 
keep  the  ground  mellow,  loose  about  the  plants  and  free 
from  weeds.  The  vine  must  also  be  tied  up  during 
the  season,  and  if  a  little  liquid  manure  could  be  ap- 
plied to  them  while  growing,  it  would  prove  of  great 
benefit.  In  applying  this  stimulant,  it  is  necessary  to 
use  it  in  a  very  diluted  state,  and  if  possible,  just 
before  or  during  w^et  weather.  When  applied  during 
very  dry  weather  remove  the  surface  soil  to  a  depth 


CARE   OF    THE   VINES    DURING   THE   FIRST   YEAR.         05 

of  three  or  four  inches,  and  give  at  least  a  pailful 
to  each  plant,  working  tlie  soil  as  little  as  possible, 
lest  it  be  converted  into  puddle.  Such  an  application 
will  last  for  ten  days  during  even  very  dry  weather, 
and  will  do  more  good  than  frequent  sprinkling. 

Mulching. — But  if  abundance  of  grassy  weeds, 
litter,  stable  manure,  or  similar  matters  can  be  ob- 
tained, the  best  plan  is  to  mulch  the  plants  deeply 
for  at  least  three  feet  every  way  from  the  stem.  Of 
this  process,  A.  J.  Downing  says :  "  Covering  the  soil 
in  summer  is,  in  this 'country,  one  of  the  most  valu- 
able aids  to  good  cultivation  ever  put  in  practice.  The 
best  mode  of  doing  this  is,  by  wdiat  is  technically 
called  mulcJiing.  This  consists  in  spreading  over  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  so  far  as  the  roots  of  the  tree 
or  plant  extend  beneath  it,  a  layer  of  tan  bark,  saw 
dust,  barn  yard  litter,  straw,  salt  hay,  sea  w^eed,  or  the 
like,  of  sufficient  thickness  to  maintain,  as  nearly  as 
possible,  a  uniform  state  of  temperature  and  moisture 
for  the  roots.  From  an  experience  of  some  years,  we 
do  not  hesitate  to  say  that  mulching  the  surface  of  the 
ground  over  newly-planted  trees,  is  not  only  far  bet- 
ter than  any  after-watering,  but  that,  if  the  layer  is 
thick  enough  to  keep  the  surface  cool,  it  renders 
water  wholly  unnecessary.  In  the  case  of  bearing 
fruit-trees,  especially  the  more  delicate  kinds,  as  dwarf 
pears,  apricots,  etc.,  mulching  not  only  precludes  the 


96  OPEN    AIR    GEAPE    CULTURE. 

necessity  of  stirring  the  soil,  by  preventing  weeds  from 
growing,  but  it  conduces  so  much  more  to  the  health 
of  the  tree,  and"  the  size  and  excellence  of  the  fruit 
than  any  other  practice  in  horticulture,  that  the  more 
intelligent  growers  in  the  United  States  now  consider 
it  indispensable  in  this  climate." 

In  addition  to  these  lucid  directions,  we  would  only 
•say  that  before  applying  mulch  of  any  kind  to  a 
young  vine  it  will  always  be  advisable  to  raise  the 
soil  around  the  stem  to  the  depth  to  which  it  is  in- 
tended to  lay  the  mulch,  so  as  'to  prevent  any  of  the 
latter  from  coming  in  contact  with  the  plant,  as  in  this 
case  it  might  be  producti^^^e  of  evil. 

The  annexed  fi-gure,  12,  where  the  mulch  is  seen  on 
the  surface  of  the  soil,  will  illustrate  our  meaning. 


Fig.  12. 

Laterals*  are  small  shoots  which  spring  from  the 
axils  of  the  leaves  (the  point  which  they  join  the 

*  To  these  the  French  have  given  the  name  stipulairea^  and  it  seems 
to  us  that  stipularics  would  be  quite  as  good  a  term  as  laterals,  and 
more  correct. 


CARE   OF   THE    VINES   DURING   THE   PTRST   TEAK.         97 

shoot).  As  these  laterals  absorb  much  of  the  nutri- 
ment which  would  otherwise  go  to  the  increase  of  the 
stem,  they  should  be  carefully  pinched  out  after  they 
have  made  one  or  two  leaves.  If  removed  before  they 
have  made  some  growth,  the  bud  at  their  Dase  is  very 
apt  to  push,  as  it  is  called  (that  is,  to  grow),  which 
should  be  avoided,  if  possible. 

Fig.  13  shows  a  young  shoot  of  the  current  year 
with  a  lateral  (b)  springing  from  the  base  of  the  leaf 
L.   This  lateral  should  be  pinched  off  at  the  cross  line. 


Fig.  13. 

If  removed  entirely  or  too  soon  the  bud  (c)  will  be  apt 
to  push,  and  destroy^  our  prospects  for  next  season. 

Winter  Protection  of  young  Yines. — At  the  close 

of  the  season,  the  vines  may  either  be  bent  down 

and    covered    with    earth    in   the    manner    usually 

adopted  for  covering  raspberries,  or  they  may  be  left 

upright,  and  tied  to  the  stakes,  a  mound  of  earth 

5 


98  OPEN   AIR   GRAPE   CULTURE. 

being  raised  up  around  each  such  mound,  being  at 
least  18  inches  high.  The  Boil  of  which  it  is  made 
should  be  taken  from  the  centre  of  the  rows,  as,  if  we 
take  it  from  about  the  plants,  we  only  cover  the  stem 
to  expose  the  roots. 

Where  the  vines  are  left  tied  to  the  stakes,  we  pre- 
fer to  leaving  them  unpruned.  True,  most  of  the 
wood  gets  killed,  but  this  is  of  little  moment  since  it 
is  to  be  nearly  all  cut  away  at  the  spring  pruning. 

Management  during  the  Second  Year. — As  soon 
as  the  severe  frosts  of  winter  and  early  spring  have 
passed  away,  uncover  the  young  vines,  and  if  not 
already  pruned,  cut  them  to  a  good  bud  within  9  to 
14  inches  of  the  ground.  They  should  be  shaded  for 
a  few  days  from  the  sun  and  cold,  which  may  be  very 
well  done  by  sticking  a  shingle  before  each,  though 
two  shingles  placed  so  as  to  form  an  angle  in  which 
the  vine  may  stand,  will  be  better.  We  have  now 
arrived  at  a  point  where  it.  will  be  necessary  to 
decide  upon  the  peculiar  system  to  be  adopted  in  the 
training  of  our  vines.  Instead,  however,  of  describ- 
ing all  the  different  modes  of  pruning  and  training 
in  this  place,  we  shall  give  only  that  which  we  consi- 
der best  adapted  to  the  native  American  varieties  and 
leave  the  consideration  of  the  others  to  the  chapter 
on  general  pruning  and  training. 


CAEE    OF   THE   VINKS   DUEING   THE    SECOND   TEAK.       99 

If  the  j^h'^nts  have  made  but  a  weakly,  stunted 
growth,  it  will  be  necessary  to  allow  them  another 
year  before  proceeding  to  grow  shoots  for  permanent 
arms  or  branches.  In  this  case  but  one  shoot  should 
be  trained  up,  which  may  be  treated  precisely  as 
directed  for  the  first  year.  But  if  a  cane  of  from  6 
to  12  feet  has  been  ]3i'oduced,  we  may  safely  proceed 
to  train  up  two  canes  which  will  serve  for  the  future 
aims  of  our  vine.  To  do  this,  after  cutting  down  the 
first  year's  shoot  as  directed,  remove  all  the  buds 
except  the  three  uppermost,  and  as  soon  as  these  are 
beyond  danger  of  accident,    rub    off   one    if  three 


Fig.  14. 

fihonld  still  remain.      The  two  shoots  which  are  left 
must    be   carefully   trained   up,   the   laterals  being 


100  OPEN    AIR    GEAPE    CULTUKE. 

pinched  out  and  any  fruit  blossoms  which  may 
appear  being  removed. 

The  operations  of  the  second  year  will  be  readily 
understood  from  the  inspection  of  Fig.  14,  which 
shows  the  young  vine  as  it  should  appear  at  the  close 
of  the  first  season.  Here  a  is  the  wood  of  the  old 
cutting,  with  Z>,  the  shoot  which  was  cut  back  and 
from  which  the  young  cane  c  d  grew.  As  this 
old  wood  is  hard  and  cross-grained  and  cannot  be 
renewed,  it  will  be  w^ll  to  add  top  dressing,  suf- 
ficient to  cover  it  up  to  the  line  a  b.  The  buds,  c  c, 
are  those  which  produce  next  year's  shoots ;  and  the 
buds  at  d  d  must  be  carefully  removed. 

The  ground  should  be  kept  clean  and  mellow 
during  the  season,  and  by  the  first  or  middle  of 
September  the  further  growth  of  the  canes  should 
be  stopped  by  pinching  of£  the  ends — the  wood 
being  much  more  thoroughly  ripened  when  this  is 
done. 

It  will  be  necessary,  or  at  least  advisable,  to  lay  the 
vines  down  this  season  also  and  protect,  not  only  the 
old  stem,  but  at  least  four  feet  of  the  young  shoots. 
The  stakes  may  be  removed,  and  during  the  fall  or 
early  spring  the  trellises  may  be  erected,  for  which 
full  directions  are  given  in  Chapter  IX. 

Management  during  the  Third  Season. — The  trex- 


CARE    OF   THE   VINES    DURING   THE   THIRD   YEAR.      101 

lises  Laving  been  constrncted  in  sncli  a  manner,  tliat 
the  lowest  slat  or  wire  may  be  just  below  the  base  of 
the  second  year's  shoots,  that  is  from  9  to  14  inches 
above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  these  two  shoots 
should  be  firmly,  though  not  tightly,  tied,  in  a  hori- 
zontal position   as  shown  in  Fig.  15,  and  all  buds 


Fig.  15. 

should  be  rubbed  out  except  three  on  each  arm  (or 
shoot)  thus  leaving  six  on  each  vine.  Each  of  these 
buds  should  produce  a  shoot  which,  if  the  ground  has 
"been  in  good  condition  and  the  plants  healthy  and 
properly  set  out,  would  reach  from  12  to  25  feet 
unless  stopped,  and  as  it  is  upon  every  second  one  of 
these  that  we  depend  for  our  next  year's  supply  of 
fruit,  they  deserve   and  will  require  great  care  and 


102  OPEN   AIR   GRAPE    CULTURE. 

attention  in  order  that  they  may  finally  be  of  equal 
strength  and  well  ripened.  Every  second  shoot 
should  be  stopped  when  it  has  made  a  growth  of 
about  two  feet,  and  if  any  of  the  others  should  so  far 
outstrip  their  compeers  as  to  reach  the  top  of  the 
trellis  much  before  them,  they  should  be  stopped 
also,  thougli  except  in  the  case  of  excessive  gi'owth 
all  the  shoots  had  best  be  allowed  to  grow  on  until 
the  first  of  September,  when  they  may  all  be  stopped 
at  once,  unless  it  be  deemed  best  to  allow  the  weak- 
est a  few  days'  longer  growth,  in  which  case  it  is  sur- 
prising how  soon  they  will  overtake  their  companions. 

Stopping,  or  pinching,  consists  in  breaking  off  the 
end  of  a  shoot,  and  its  immediate  effect  is  to  arrest 
the  further  growth  of  the  cane,  or  at  least  its  further 
lineal  development,  for  the  time  being.  But  although 
no  more  leaves  are  immediately  formed,  those  ah'eady 
in  existence  perform  their  usual  functions  and  the 
whole  energies  of  the  plant  are  directed  to  the  ripen- 
ing of  the  wood  already  produced.  After  a  time, 
one  of  the  buds  near  the  extremity  of  the  shoot  will 
probably  break  and  become  the  leader,  when  it 
should  be  stopped  in  turn,  this  process  being  fepeated 
as  often  as  any  symptoms  of  vigorous  growth  are 
exhibited.  The  result  of  all  this  checking  is  to  lessen 
the  ultimate  amount  of  wood  produced  and  to 
improve  its  quality  both  as  to  ripeness  and  density. 

Stopping  furnishes  us  with  an  elFectual  means  of 


CARE  OF  THE  VINES  DURING  THE  THIRD  TEAR.   103 

equalizing  the  growth  of  our.  joung  canes — a  most 
iiiiport£Cnt  point,  not  onlj  as  regards  the  neatness  of 
their  appearance,  but  tlie  regularity  with  which  the 
fruit  buds  will  break  next  season  and  the  strength 
with  which  they  will  shoot.  But  as  the  latter  points 
depends  not  only  upon  the  size  of  the  canes,  but 
their  maturity^  it  is  necessary  that  an  equal  growth 
be  kept  up  during  the  whole  season.  This  is  easily 
accomplished  as  the  stopping  may  fortunately  be  per- 
formed at  any  time. 

The  same  directions  as  to  the  removal  of  laterals 
and  the  clearing  of  the  ground  should  be  observed 
during  this  as  during  former  years.  Greater  care  is, 
however,  required  in  the  treatment  of  laterals  when 
raising  fruit-bearing  canes,  as  if  by  too  close  pinch- 
ing we  should  cause  the  buds  which  are  found  at  the 
base  of  the  leaves  and  upon  which  we  depend  for 
our  next  year's  fruit  to  push,  our  prospects  would  be 
materially  injured.  A  good  rule  will  be,  never  to  pinch 
out  the  laterals,  and  stop  the  main  cane  at  the  same 
time ;  and  if  the  vines  show  a  very  vigorous  growth 
of  wood,  to  allow  the  laterals  to  make  two  leaves 
before  stopping  them.  If  the  vines  are  weakly,  we 
may  stop  the  laterals  as  soon  as  they  appear,  as  in 
this  case,  the  main  shoot  makes  sufficient  draft  upon 
the  roots,  to  keep  all  other  growth  in  abeyance. 


104 


OPEN   AIE   GRAPE   CULTURE. 


1 


CHAPTEE  YI. 


MANAGEMENT   OF   FRUITING  VINES. 

At  the  close  of  the  third  season  we  ought  to  have 
a  vine  such  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  16,  consisting  of  a 
stout,  strait,  clean  stem,  9  to  14  inches  high,  from  the 


Fig.  16. 


top,  or  head  of  which  springs  two  horizontal  arms, 
each  bearing  two  well  ripened  canes,  8  to  10  feet  long. 


MANAGEMENT   OF   FEUITING    VINES.  105 

and  two  smaller  shoots  of  from  two  to  five  feet. 
The  two  canes  ought  next  season  to  produce  3  to  5 
lbs.  of  fruit  each,  and  their  proper  care  during  the 
winter  is  worthy  of  our  best  efforts. 

"Winter  Protection  of  the  Fruiting  Canes. — As 
the  vines  have  now  assumed  their  permanent  form 
and  size  (unless  it  should  be  deemed  advisable  after 
the  lapse  of  a  few  years  to  remove  each  alternate 
vine  and  so  double  the  extent  of  trellis  allotted  to 
the  remainder),  it  becomes  important  to  settle  upon 
a  systematic  course  of  procedure  in  order  to  facilitate 
our  operations,  and  this  remark  applies  to  their  pro- 
tection during  winter  as  well  as  to  every  other  pro- 
cess connected  with  them.  Of  the  advantage,  we 
had  almost  said  necessity,  for  winter  protection  there 
can  be  no  doubt.  Some  extensive  cultivators,  at  a 
late  meeting  of  the  Western  E".  Y.  Fruit  Growers 
Society  stated,  that  they  would  have  made  $100  per 
day  for  the  time  spent  in  covering  their  vines  if  they 
had  done  so  in  the  fall  of  1858. 

One  gentleman  asserted  that  he  had  lost  thousands 
of  dollars  by  neglecting  it — and  there  is  probably  no 
point  in  the  whole  range  of  grape  growing  upon 
which  cultivators  are  so  thoroughly  agreed  as  this. 
The  mere  laying  down  the  vines  on  the  ground,  cover- 
ing them  with  snow,  laying  boards  or  brush  upon  or 


106  OPEN   AIR    GEAPE    CULTURE. 

against  them  have  all  been  found  materially  to 
increase  the  next  year's  product  and  to  improve  its 
quality.  But  these  are  clumsy  expedients,  incapable 
of  systematic  aj^plication  and  unfit  for  adoption  on  a 
large  scale. 

Where  vines  are  trained  to  trellises  in  the  manner 
which  we  have  just  described,  it  has  been  asserted  by 
many  that  it  is  impossible  to  lay  down  the  horizontal 
arms  so  as  to  cover  them,  owing  to  the  rigidity  of  the 
old  wood,  and  in  order  to  avoid  this  it  has  been  pro- 
posed to  leave  the  head  of  the  vine  so  low  down  that 
the  arms  shall  lie  on  the  surface  and  be  always  co- 
vered with  earth.  To  this  method  there  are  many 
objections.  The  berries  are  soiled  with  every  rain, 
clean  culture  is  rendered  more  difficult,  and  the  sur- 
face roots  thrown  out  by  the  arms  cause  a  succulent 
growth  during  moist  weather,  which  suffers  during 
the  succeedins:  drou£>:ht.  But  if  the  vines  are  bent 
down  every  year,  little  difficulty  need  be  appi-e- 
hended  on  tjiis  score,  and  if  the  following  plan  be 
adopted,  vines  may  be  bent  sufficiently,  even  when 
they  have  become  old  and  rigid. 

The  method  which  we  have  proposed,  is  to  place 
the  trellis  8  to  12  inches  in  advance  of  the  vine,  the 
stem  being  brought  forward  beneath  the  first  slat  or 
rail,  and  tied  up  as  usual.  The  accompanying  figure 
(17)  explains  this  better  tlian  words  can  express  it,  and 


MAIJAGEMENT   OF    FKUITING    VmES. 


107 


Fig.  IT. 


it  will  be  readily  seen  that   very  little  bending  is 
required,  and  even  that  is   so  distributed   over  the 


Fig.  18. 


108  OPEN   AIR   GEApi:   CULTURE. 

whole  stem  that  no  injury  can  result.  No  practical 
objections  that  we  are  aware  of  exist  to  this  method. 
Before  bending  down  the  stem,  the  vine  should  be 
pruned.  This  consists  in  cutting  off  the  long  shoots 
to  a  length  of  four  feet  (the  first  season),  and  the 
alternate  short  ones  to  the  lowest  good  bud.  The  vine 
so  pruned  is  shown  in  Fig.  18.  Then  the  stem, 
having  been  bent  down,  it  will  be  easy  to  fold  the 
flexible  young  canes  so  as  to  lie  compactly  to- 
gether,  as  shown  in  Fig.   19,  when  they  may  be 


Fig.  19. 

covered  with  earth.  The  soil  for  this  purpose  must 
be  light  and  sandy,  and  should  be  so  disposed  that 
water  will  not  penetrate  to  the  vines.  If  light  soil 
cannot  be  had,  the  vines  may  be  pegged  down  and 
covered  with  the  branches  of  evergreens,  though  it 
is  improbable  that  these  could  be  obtained  in  suffi 
cient  quantity  to  protect  a  large  vineyard.  Leaves 
or  straw  would  answer,  though  they  might  harbor 
mice,  which  would  soon  destroy  tlie  vines. 

The  vines  should  be  left  covered  as  long  as  possible, 
but  must  be  exposed  before  the  buds  begin  to  push 
in  the  spring.     I^o  particular  day  of  the  month  can 


MANAGEMENT   OF    FRUITESTG   VINES.  109 

be  given,  tlie  date  varying  with  the  locaHty  and  tlie 
season.  Tlie  best  mode  of  determining  the  point  is  to 
uncover  some  of  the  vines  as  soon  as  the  cold  weather 
has  passed  away.  If  they  are  swollen  and  ready  to 
push,  it  is  time  to  tie  the  vine  to  the  trellis.  If  they 
seem  still  dormant,  leave  them  a  little  longer.  The 
later  the  vines  can  be  made  to  pnsh  the  better,  as  they 
not  only  escape  late  frosts,  but  their  excitability  seems 
to  be  so  accumulated  and  intensified  by  such  retarda- 
tion that  their  after  growth  is  much  more  vigorous 
than  it  would  otherwise  have  been. 

After  the  vines  have  been  properly  tied  to  the 
trellis,  and  the  ground  raked,  or  hoed  level  (all  work 
on  it  being  avoided  when  it  is  wet,  however),  nothing 
should  be  done  until  the  buds  have  burst  so  as  at  least 
to  show  their  vitality  and  strength.  Then  go  over 
the  vines  and  rub  off  all  buds  which  show  themselves 
on  the  upright  stem  and  horizontal  arms  and  disbud 
the  canes  so  as  to  leave  six  good  buds,  and  no  more, 
on  each.  By  doing  this  at  this  early  period,  the 
strength  of  the  vine  is  thrown  into  the  buds  which 
reniain,  and  they  consequently  push  with  increased 
vigor.  The  lowest  good  bud  on  the  short  spurs  must 
also  be  left,  all  the  others  being  removed. 

As  soon  as  the  blossoms  show  themselves,  and 
before  they  have  expanded,  it  will  be  necessary  again 
to  go  over  the  vines  and  stop  or  pinch  all  the  shoots 


ilO  OPEN    AIR   GKAPK    CULTUEE. 

which  show  fruit,  at  the  same  time  removing  all  the 
blossoms  exce^Dt  two  or  three  clusters  on  each  shoot. 
This  will  not  onlj  serve  to  keep  the  vine  within 
bounds,  but  it  will  cause  the  fruit  to  set  much  better 
than  it  would  do  if  this  course  were  not  pursued.  In 
a  former  section,  we  alluded  to  stopping  with  a  view 
to  the  ripening  of  the  wood  and  the  training  of  the 
vine,  and  the  directions  there  given  apply  equally  to 
our  action  as  regards  the  shoots  from  the  short  spurs 
— they  being  designed  to  furnish  the  bearing  canea 
for  next  year,  to  replace  those  which  are  now  fruiting 
and  which  will  be  entirely  cut  away  at  the  next  winter 
pruning.  But  other  reasons  also  induce  us  to  stop  the 
fruit-bearing  shoots,  and  as  the  whole  subject  of  stop- 
ping, and  its  detrimental  substitute,  summer  prun- 
ing, is  one  of  vital  importance  to  the  grape  vine,  we 
cannot  do  better  than  preface  our  remarks  by  quoting 
the  pliysiological  laws  upon  which  it  is  based,  from 
Lindley's  "  Theory  and  Practice  of  Horticulture." 

"Nature  has  given  plants  leaves,  not  merely  to 
decorate  tliem  or  to  shade  us^  but  as  a  part  of  a  won- 
drous system  of  life  quite  as  perfect  as  that  of  the  ani- 
mal kingdom.  It  would  be  of  no  use  for  a  plant  to 
Buck  food  out  of  the  earth  by  its  roots,  unless  there 
was  some  place  provided  in  which  sucli  food,  consist- 
ing principally  of  water  and  mucilage,  could  be 
digested   and  so   converted   into   the   matter  which 


MANAGEMENT   OF   FEUITING    VINES.  HI 

maintains  tlie  health  of  the  individual.     The  stem  can- 
not  do   this:   firstly,  because   it  is  a  mere   channel 
through   which   fluids  pass ;   and,  secondly,  because 
many  plants  have  no  visible  stem,  as  in  the  instance  of 
the  primrose  ;  and  yet  in  all  such  cases  the  plant  feeds 
and  must  digest  its  food.     It  is  to  the  leaves  that  this 
important  ofiice  is  assigned,  and  to  enable  them  to 
execute  it  God  has  formed  them  with  wisdom  no  less 
infinite  than  has  been  displayed  in  the  creation  of  man. 
The  leaves  have  veins  through  which  their  fluids  pass 
and  cells  in  which   they  are  held  while  digesting, 
myriads  of  little  caverns  through  whose  sides  respira- 
tion is  maintained,  a  skin  to  guard  them  from  the  air, 
and  poi-es  for  carrying  ofl"  perspiration.     A  leaf  is,  in 
fact,  both  stomach  and  lungs ;  and  to  destroy  it  is  to 
do  the  same  injury  to  a  plant  as  would  be  efi'ected  in 
an  animal  by  the  destruction  of  the  parts  to  which 
those  names  are  given.     Of  this  we  may  be  certain, 
that  neither  taste,  perfume,  color,  size,  nor  any  other 
property,  can  be  given  to  a  plant  except  through  the 
assistance  of  the  leaves  ;  and  that  the  more  numerous 
these  are,  the  larger  and  the  more  luxuriant,  so,  within 
certam  limits,  will  be  all  that  a  plant  is  capable  of 
forming.     Strip  the  leaves  off  a  tree,  and  no  more 
wood  will  appear  until  the  leaves  are  restored ;  feed 
Its  roots  in  the  hope  of  thus  compensating  for  tlie  loss 
of  its  leaves,  and  the  stem  will  be  filled  indeed  with 


112  OPEN   AIK   GRAPE    CULTIIKE. 

watery  matter ;  but  the  latter  will  collect  in  the  inte- 
rior until  it  forces  its  way  through  the  bark,  and  runs 
down  in  putrid  streams,  as  happens  to  the  mulberry- 
tree  when  it  is  incessantly  stripped  for  silkworms, 
and  as  occurs  to  trees  whose  leaves  are  continually 
destroyed  by  a  noxious  atmosphere.  Strip  the  ripen- 
ing grapes  of  their  green  garments,  and  no  color  or 
sweetness  will  be  collected  in  their  berries.  Rob  the 
potato  of  its  foliage  and  you  will  seek  in  vain  for 
nourishment  in  its  tubers ;  and  so  of  all  things  else. 
On  the  other  hand,  leave  the  mulberry,  the  vine  and 
the  potato  uninjured,  to  the  genial  influence  of  the 
sun  and  the  air,  and  the  dews  of  heaven,  and  wood  is 
formed  in  the  one  case,  sugar  and  color  in  the  other — 
and  flour,  the  staff  of  life,  in  the  last,  and  these  pro- 
ducts will  all  be  in  exact  proportion  to  the  health  and 

abundance  of  the  foliage 

"  But  although  the  general  rale  is  to  allow  as  many 
leaves  to  remain  on  a  tree  as  can  be  kept  in  health, 
yet  there  are  circumstances  which  justify  their  re- 
moval, and,  indeed,  render  it  necessary.  For  example, 
when  a  tender  tree  is  trained  to  a  wall,  a  great  object 
with  the  gardener  is  to  secure  ripe  wood  ;  for  unless 
he  does  this,  the  frost  of  the  succeeding  winter  may 
destroy  the  branches,  or  the  buds  may  be  so  imper- 
fectly formed  as  to  produce  feeble  shoots  the  ensuing 
season.     To  attain  this  object,  those  leaves  must  be 


MANAGEMENT   OF    FEUITING    VINES.  113 

removed  which  prevent  the  sun  from  striking  upon 
the  branches  to  be  ripened,  the  effect  of  this  being  to 
stop  the  rapid  growth  of  the  branches  and  to  consoli- 
date their  tissue,  in  consequence,  partly,  of  the  exces- 
sive perspiration,  and  partly  of  the  rapid  digestion  of 
the  sap,  which  is  thus  induced  \foT  the  rate  of  digestion 
and  perspiration  in  a  liealtliy  jplant^  is  in  proportion 
to  the  quantity  of  light  and  heat  to  which  it  is  ex- 
posed. Hence  the  removal  of  those  shoots  which  in 
summer  overshadow  that  wood  of  the  peach-tree 
which  is  intended  to  be  preserved  another  year,  is 
useful ;  there  can  be  no  doubt,  however,  that  as  few 
shoots  as  possible  should  be  thus  removed.  Another 
case  in  which  the  removal  of  the  leaves  is  justifiable 
occurs  in  the  vine.  In  this  plant  the  fruit  is  borne 
near  the  base  of  the  lateral  shoots,  which  will,  if  un- 
checked, go  on  lengthening  and  producing  leaves  to  a 
considerable  distance.  I^ow  all  the  food  of  such  a 
lateral  shoot  is  obtained  from  the  main  branch,  which, 
however,  is  only  capable  of  furnishing  a  certain 
quantity.  If  the  lateral  shoot  is  allowed  to  grow  un- 
checked, it  will  consume  its  portion  of  food  in  the 
production  of  many  leaves  and  some  grapes ;  and  the 
more  there  is  of  the  former,  the  less  will  be  the 
weight  of  the  latter.  But  if  the  shoot  is  stopped  after 
having  formed  two  leaves,  all  that  quantity  of  food 
which  would  have  been  consumed  in  the  production 


114  OPEN    AIK    GRAPE    CULTURE. 

of  other  leaves  is  applied  to  the  increase  of  size  in  the 
grapes,  and  the  two  leaves  that  are  left;  while  on  the 
otlier  hand,  the  general  crop  of  leaves  on  the  vine  will 
be  amply  sufficient  to  prepare  those  secretions  which 
are  to  give  flavor,  color  and  sweetness  to  the  grapes. 
This  will,  perhaps,  be  better  explained  by  the  annexed 
diagram. 


f 


"  Let  the  line  a  g  represent  a  lateral  vine 
branch,  bearing  fruit  at  b,  and  leaves  2X  cd  ef. 
Suppose  six  ounces  of  sap  are  destined  to  sup- 
port this  lateral  a  g^  during  the  summer ;  it 
is  evident  that,  if  equally  distributed,  each  d 
leaf  and  branch  will  receive  one  ounce  of  sap  ^ 
as  its  proportion.  But  \i  e  f  g  are  removed, 
it  is  obvious  that  the  three  which  remain  will 
have  two  ounces  each,  or  double  the  supply.       a 

"  Why,  tlien,  it  may  be  asked,  not  remove  c  and  d 
also  ?  because,  in  that  case,  b,  the  bunch  of  fruit, 
would  have  the  whole  six  ounces  of  sap  to  itself.  The 
reason  why  this  should  not  be  done  is  this :  if  all  the 
leaves  on  the  lateral  are  removed,  there  will  be  no 
force  left  upon  it  wherewith  to  attract  from  the  main 
branch  the  food  that  belongs  to  it;  for  the  power 
which  the  parts  of  the  plants  possess  of  attracting 
fluid  is  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  their  perspira- 
tion. Now  leaves  perspire  copiously,  but  the  grapes 
themselves  scarcely  at  all ;  whence  their  gradual  con- 


MANAGEMENT    OF   FRUITING    VINES.  115 

version  from  a  substance  of  the  texture  oi  a  leaf  into 
a  mass  of  pulp.  In  the  instance  of  vine  pruning, 
the  great  object  is  to  leave  on  the  laterals  just  as 
much  force  as  may  be  required  to  secure  for  the 
bunches  the  food  that  is  intended  for  thein,  and  at 
the  same  time  to  deprive  the  laterals  of  the  means  of 
expending  tliat  food  uselessly  in  the  production  of 
leaves  instead  of  fruit."  -*- 

In  applying  the  above  to  the  culture  of  the  grape 
in  this  country,  however,  v^^e  are  inclined  to  believe 
that  the  direct  access  of  the  sun  to  the  wood  or  fruit 
is  not  necessary  to  their  perfect  ripening.  And  our 
readers  must  also  observe  that,  although  in  the  illus- 
tration at  the  close  of  the  paragraph,  Dr.  Lindley 
alludes  to  the  "  removal "  of  the  leaves,  yet  from  the 
remarks  immediately  preceding  it,  we  gather  that  he 
is  no  advocate  for  "  summer  pruning,"  but  for  ''  stop- 
ping." By  summer  pruning  we  mean  the  removal 
of  large  quantities  of  leaves  and  shoots — a  practice 
■which  is  quite  common  throughout  the  country. 
Often  and  often  have  we  seen  loads  of  such  matter 
cut  away  under  the  pretence  of  "  letting  in  the  sun 
and  air  to  the  grapes."  ^Now  if  these  summer  prun- 
ers  would  only  observe  that  all  the  finest  bunches 
grow  and  ripen  under  the  shade  of  the  leaves,  they 
would  cease  their  senseless  efforts  and  rest  content 
with  merely  breaking  off  the  ends  of  the  shoots. 


116  OPEN"   AIR   GRAPE   CULTURE. 

That  grapes  will  not  ripen  well,  and  that  vines  will 
not  be  healthy  under  a  dense  mass  of  matted  foliage, 
we  freely  admit.  Bat  this  is  not  an  evil  to  be  reme- 
died by  the  knife.  In  this  case,  most  emphatically, 
prevention  is  better  that  cure. 

When  we  reflect  that  the  amount  of  organizable 
matter  which  can  be  furnished  by  any  vine  is  limited, 
and  also  Aat  all  rank  and  succulent  growth  is  prejudi- 
cial to  the  production  of  fruit,  we  can  readHy  appre- 
ciate the  advantage  of  directing  the  sap  to  the  pro- 
duction of  fruit,  rather  than  wood  and  leaves.  But 
we  must  also  remember  that  every  ounce  of  organiz- 
able matter  which  is  embodied  in  leaves  or  stem,  is 
so  much  capital  invested,  aud  is  no  more  to  be  thrown 
away  than  the  stock  of  the  moneyed  capitalist,  which 
only  brings  in  two  ^er  cent.,  even  though  liis  neigh- 
bor, on  a  different  investment,  receives  ten. 

The  leaves  are  the  laboratories  in  which  the  sap  is 
prepared  for  the  nourishment,  not  only  of  the  fruit, 
but  of  the  wood,  and  the  more  of  them  we  have  the 
better,  provided  we  do  not  invest  too  large  an 
amount  of  our  available  capital  in  their  production, 
just  as  some  of  our  farmers  invest  all  their  capital  in 
land,  and  leave  themselves  nothing  with  which  to 
work  it. 

Another  evil  attendant  upon  summer  pruning,  is 
the  sudden  and  violent  check  which  it  gives  to  tlie 


M.VNAGEMENT    OF    FRUITING    VINES.  117 

plants.  Tlie  roots  being  excited  into  vigoions  action 
by  the  enormous  draft  made  npon  them,  find  them- 
selves suddenly  without  a  channel  through  which 
their  unelaborated  product  can  find  vent ;  the  balance 
of  product  and  supply  is  upset  and  the  fruit  is  filled 
with  crude,  ill-digested  sap,  thus  causing  it  to  be 
unripe  and  ill-flavored.  But  by  early  stopping  the 
shoots,  and  thus  preventing  the  further  production  of 
leaves  and  wood,  we  render  summer  pruning,  that  is, 
the  removal  of  superabundant  leaves  and  wood,  unne- 
cessary ;  no  sudden  check  is  given  to  the  vines,  the  sap 
is  fully  elaborated  as  fast  as  it  is  supplied,  and  the 
fruit  receiving  an  extra  supply  of  properly  prepared 
sap  (which  would  otherwise  have  gone  to  the  produc- 
tion of  wood  and  leaves)  is  enlarged  in  size  and 
improved  in  flavor. 

That  the  leaves  are  the  gi'eat  agents  in  the  elabora- 
tion of  sap,  was  fully  proved  by  the  experiments  of 
Hales,  who  forced  orange  flower-water  into  the  vessels 
of  a  vine,  with  a  view  to  impart  its  flavor  to  the  fruit. 
The  experiment  was  unsuccessful  as  to  its  ostensi- 
ble object,  but  not  as  to  its  concomitant  results ;  for  he 
traced  the  flavor  through  the  stem  and  branches  to 
the  leaves,  but  no  further;  there  it  was  decomposed, 
and  doubtless  returned  to  the  wood  and  fruit  in  the 
form  of  sap. 

In  a  few  weeks,  or  perhaps    days,    after    being 


118  OPEN    ATR    GRAPE    CULTURE. 

stopped,  the  last  bud  on  all  these  shoots,  will,  no 
doubt,  burst  and  form  a  leader,  which  will  grow  nearly 
as  vigorously  as  if  the  terminal  bud  had  not  been 
removed.  It  will,  therefore,  be  necessary  to  go  over 
all  these  vines  again  as  soon  as  the  fruit  is  set,  and 
repeat  the  same  operation.  At  this  time,  also,  the 
fruit  should  be  thinned,  which,  for  vineyard  culture, 
consists  in  the  removal  of  all  weak,  ill-formed 
bunches,  some  even  recommending  the  removal  of 
the  lower  part  of  all  the  bunches. 

"When,  however,  extra  fine  bunches  are  desired, 
we  prefer  the  plan  usually  adopted  in  hot-house 
culture,  which  consists  in  removing  at  least  one 
half  the  berries  from  every  bunch — the  largest  and 
finest  being,  of  course,  left.  This  operation  is  best 
performed  when  the  grapes  are  the  size  of  peas,  but 
by  many  it  will  be  deemed  too  minute  and  laborious 
an  operation  for  vineyard  practice. 

While  doing  this,  it  will  also  be  proper  to  remove 
or  extirpate  all-  shoots  which  either  have  not  fruit, 
or  are  not  wanted  for  next  year's  canes. 

During  the  growing  season  it  will  be  necessary  to 
look  over  the  vines,  at  intervals  of  two  or  three 
weeks,  stopping  the  fruiting  shoots,  removing  suck- 
ers, and  pinching  out  laterals  at  the  second  eye.  The 
ground  should  also  be  kept  loose  and  mellow,  and  all 
the  operations  of  the  vineyard  be  carried  on,  with  as 


MANAGEMENT   OF    FETJITING   VINES.  119 

little  trampling  on  the  borders  as  possible.  Indeed, 
if  the  exjDense  be  not  an  objection,  we  would  lay 
down  boards  or  planks,  supported  by  suitable  stakes 
or  posts,  and  forming  a  walk  along  the  front  of  each 
trellis,  so  as  to  allow  all  the  work  of  the  vineyard 
being  performed  without  a  foot  being  set  upon  the 
soil. 


120  OPEN   AIR   GKAPE   CULTUKB. 


CHAPTER    YH. 

SUBSEQUENT   MANAGEMENT   OF   THE   VINES, 

The  future  management  of  the  vines  will  consist  in 
training  up,  each  year,  a  shoot  from  the  intermediate 
spurs,  and  cutting  out  entirely  the  cane  which  has  borne 
the  fruit.  The  cane  which  was  trained  up  last  year,  will 
this  year  produce  a  crop,  while,  from  the  spur  left  in 
cutting  out  the  former  cane,  is  trained  up  a  shoot  for 
the  following  year,  and  so  on  ad  infinitum. 

As  the  peculiar  pruning  necessary  is  a  subject  of 
vital  importance  to  success  in  grape  culture,  we  will 
give  a  consecutive  condensed  description  of  it,  illus- 
trated by  proper  figures. 


Fig.  20. 

Fig.  20  shows  a  section  of  the  horizontal  armSj.  at 
the  end  of  the  third  season,     a  is  the  cane  which  has 


SUBSEQUENT   MANAGEMENT   OF   THE   VINES.  121 

been  trained  to  the  top  of  the  trellis,  b  the  shoot 
which  was  stopped  when  two  to  four  feet  long.  Just 
before  laying  down  the  vine  for  winter  protection,  a 
is  cut  to  about  a  length  of  4  feet,  and  b  is  cut  away 
at  the  cross-line,  or  just  above  the  first  good  bud. 

As  the  force  with  which  the  buds  push,  depends  a 
good  deal  nj)on  their  number  relatively  to  the  size  of 
the  vine,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  cut  off  a  to  4 
feet  or  less,  and  rub  out  several  of  the  buds  which 
appear  on  it.  K,  in  addition  to  this,  all  other  buds 
except  one  from  each  of  the  spurs,  b,  be  removed,  we 
could  scarcely  fail  to  train  up  a  good  cane  from  b, 
tof  en  though  none  but  latent  buds  were  left. 


B 

Pig.  21. 

IText  season  the  figure  is  reversed.  Here  b  is  the 
young  shoot  of  last  year,  while  a,  which  carries  the 
six  shoots  upon  which  the  fruit  grew,  is  cut  off  at  the 
cross-line,  b  is  shortened  this  year  to  5  or  6  feet, 
and  disbudded  as  before — one  or  two  more  buds 
being  left  on,  as  the  vine  is  growing  stronger. 


122 


OPEN   AIE   GKAPE   CULTURE. 


At  the  base  of  a,  below  the  cross-line,  will  appear 
intermediate  little  buds — some  of  them  quite  promi- 
rent.  The  best  of  them  must  be  taken,  and  no  fear 
need  be  entertained  of  getting  a  good  cane  from  it, 
if  all  the  unnecessary  huds  are  promptly  extirpated. 

If,  however,  we  allow  shoots  to  grow  all  over  the 
vine  we  will  probably  fail  to  get  any  cane  at  all. 

The  following  season,  the  shoot  proceeding  from  a 


Mg.  ^ 


is  fruited,  and  b  is  cut  off  at  the   cross-line.    This 
stage  of  its  progress  is  shown  in  Fig.  22. 


ng.  23. 


SUBSEQUENT   MANAGEMENT   OF   THE    VINES. 


123 


In  Fiir.  23  is  shown  the  vine  at  the  end  of  the  sixth 
season.  Bj  this  time,  the  spurs  will  have  become 
hard,  and  if  allowed  to  remain  much  longer,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  renew  the  whole  vine,  as  is  done  in 
the  Thom.erj  system  (see  Appendix).  It  will,  there- 
fore, be  well  to  allow  a  bud  to  push  from  the  base 
of  B,  if  one  should  show  itself,  as  there  most  likely 


Fig.  24. 

will.  In  this  case,  Fig.  24  will  represent  b  as  it  will 
appear  at  the  close  of  the  season,  when  the  entire 
spur  must  be  cut  off  with  a  fine  saw,  at  the  cross  line, 
and  the  wound  carefully  pared  smooth  and  coated 
with  a  solution  of  shellac  in  alcohol.* 

*  "  Take  a  quart  of  alcohol  and  dissolve  it  in  as  much  gum  shellac  as 
will  make  a  liquid  of  the  consistence  of  paint.  Apply  this  to  the 
wound  with  a  common  painter's  brush ;  always  paring  the  wound 
smoothly  first  with  a  knife.  The  liquid  becomes  perfectly  hard, 
adheres  closely,  excludes  the  air  perfectly*  and  is  affected  by  no 
changes  of  weather ;  while  at  the  same  time  its  thinness  offers  no 


124  OPEN   AIE   GRAPE   CULTURE. 

The  shoot  a  is  cut  off  at  the  line,  as  shown,  or  just 
above  the  lowest  good  bud.  Next  season,  b  will 
appear  as  shown  in  Fig.  20,  and  the  same  routine  as 
that  first  described  much  be  again  gone  over. 

If  we  should  be  unable  to  obtain  the  shoot  a  at  the 
time  it  is  wanted  (which,  however,  will  not  happen 
once  in  twenty  times),  we  must  leave  the  old  spur 
and  obtain  a  shoot  from  the  base  of  last  year's  fruit- 
ing cane. 

After  a  number  of  years  (say  six  to  fen),  it  may  be 
found  advisable  to  extend  the  vines.  This  may  be 
done  either  by  removing  every  second  one,  or  by 
raising  the  trellis. 

In  the  latter  case  it  will  be  best,  in  order  to  secure 
an  equal  distribution  of  the  sap,  to  lay  down  two 
courses  of  horizontal  arms  and  allow  the  vertical,  or 
bearing  canes,  to  extend  only  half-way  up  the  trellis. 

The  proper  arrangement  for  this,  is  shown  in  Fig. 
25,  where  it  will  be  seen  that  the  horizontal  arms  of 
every  second  vine  are  extended  both  ways,  so  as  to 
cover  double  their  usual  space.  The  stem  of  the 
centre  vine  is  carried  up  to  the  middle  of  the  trellis 
and  arms  from  it  laid  down,  of  the  same  length  as  the 

resistance  to  the  lip  of  the  new  bark  that  gradually  closes  over  the 
wound.  If  the  composition  is  kept  in  a  well-corked  bottle,  suffi- 
ciently wide  mouthed  \m  admit  the  brush,  it  will  always  be  ready  for 
use  and  suited  to  the  want  of  the  moment." — Downing. 


SUBSEQUENT   MANAGEMENT   OF   THE   VINES. 


125 


lower  ones.     The  fruiting   canes  are  produced  and 
treated  in  the  manner  just  described. 


Fig.  25. 

In  order  to  effect  the  change,  the  lower  arms  may 
be  extended  by  laying  down  the  outer  fruit  canes  of 
last  year  and  pruning  their  junction  with  the  old  wood 
so  as  to  'leave  a  continuous  rod.  To  produce  the 
upper  arms,  however,  it  will,  we  think,  be  found  best 
to  cut  the  vines  down  to  the  ground  and  train  up  new 
stems,  arms  and  verticals.  The  loss  of  time  incurred 
will  be  more  than  repaid  by  the  increased  vigor 
and  health  of  the  vine. 

That  the  general  system  of  culture  here  laid  down 


126  OPEN   AIR   GRAPE   CULTURE. 

is  the  best  for  all  ordinary  purposes,  we  are  firmly 
convinced.  The  extent  allowed  to  the  vine  during 
its  first  few  years,  is  amply  sufiacient  for  the  produc- 
tion of  an  abundant  crop,  while  at  the  same  time  the 
vine  is  so  far  kept  within  bounds,  that  every  bud  is 
pushed  with  vigor.  And  this  will  be  found  to  be  one 
of  the  most  important  points  connected  with  the 
proper  training  of  the  vine.  For  when  the  balance 
between  the  vital  forces  of  the  plant  and  the  extent  to 
which  it  is  allowed  to  extend,  is  greatly  disturbed,  as 
exemplified  in  the  opposite  extremes  of  stake  train- 
ing and  total  neglect,  nothing  but  debility  on  the 
one  hand,  and  the  inordinate  production  of  wood  to 
the  exclusion  of  fruit  on  the  other,  can  result. 


pkukhstg  geape  tines.  13T 


CHAPTER   Yin. 

GBNBKAL    THEOKT   AND     PKAOTIOE     OF   PKOTING  AS    AP- 
PLIED  to   THE   GBAPE   VINE. 

In  the  preceding  chapters  we  have  given  minute 
directions  for  that  particular  system  of  pruning  and 
training,  which  we  believe  to  be  best  adapted  to  our 
native  grapes.  It  is  now  our  purpose  to  detail  those 
general  principles  which  apply  to  all  modes  of  prun- 
ing and  training,  and  to  describe  a  few  of  those  pecu- 
liar systems  which  have  been  founded  upon  them. 

I.  The  first  principle  upon  which  all  correct  prun- 
ing whether  of  the  vine  or  any  other  tree,  must  be 
based,  is  that  the  sap  always  tends  to  the  extremities 
of  the  branches. 

From  this,  it  follows  that  unless  the  balance  be- 
tween the  roots  and  branches  of  the  vine  be  care- 
fully and  accurately  adjusted,  all  the  lower  portion 
of  the  old  wood  will  become  devoid  of  spurs  or  bear- 
ing shoots,  and  unless  the  portion  of  the  wall  or  trel- 
lis'over  which  it  is  trained  is  otherwise  occupied,  the 
space  will  be  left  practically  vacant. 

Experience  has  also  shown  that  there  is  no  praoti 


128  OPEN    AIR    GRAPE    CULTURE. 

cal  limit  to  this  law — that  is,  that  the  distance  to 
which  the  sap  may  he  propelled  exceeds  any  limits  to 
which  it  is  ever  necessary  to  carry  it. 

"  If  the  shoots  of  the  vine  are  trained  along  a  con- 
siderable extent  of  wall,  the  branches  sjpread  out  much 
wider,  and  the  berries  attain  a  larger  size.  This 
property  of  the  vine,  although  known  to  experienced 
gardeners,  is  not  taken  advantage  of  as  it  ought  to  be. 
A  vine  might  be  trained  horizontall}^  under  the  cop- 
ing of  a  wall  to  a  great  distance,  and  by  inverting  the 
bearing  shoots,  the  spaces  between  the  other  fruit- 
trees  and  the  top  of  the  wall  could  readily  be  filled 
up,  and  if  different  vines  were  inarched  to  the  hori- 
zontal branch,  the  south  wall  of  a  large  garden  might 
be  furnished  with  a  varietv  of  sorts  from  the  stem 
and  root  of  a  single  plant,  the  roots  of  which  would 
not  encumber  the  border  in  which  the  other  fruit- 
trees  are  growing.  I  have  an  experiment  of  this  kind 
now  in  progress  in  my  garden.  Within  a  few  years 
past,  I  have  gradually  trained  bearing  branches  of  a 
small  black  cluster  grape,  to  the  distance  of  near 
fifty  feet  from  the  root,  and  I  find  the  bunches  every 
year  grow  larger,  and  ripen  earlier  as  the  shoots  con- 
tinue to  advance. 

"  According  to  Mr.  Knight's  theory  of  the  circula- 
lation  of  the  sap,  the  ascending  sap  must  necessarily 
become  enriched  by  the  nutritious  particles  it  meets 


PKTINmG   GRAPE  VINES.  129 

with  in  its  progress  tlirougli  the  vessels  of  the  albur- 
num ;  the  wood  at  the  top  of  the  tall  trees,  therefore, 
becomes  short-jointed  and  full  of  blossom  buds,  and 
the  fruit  there  situated  attains  its  greatest  perfection. 
Hence,  we  find  pine  and  fir-trees  loaded  with  the 
finest  cones  on  the  top  boughs,  the  largest  acorns 
grow  on  the  terminal  branches  of  the  oak,  and  the 
finest  mast  on  the  high  boughs  of  the  beech  and 
chestnut;  so,  likewise,  apples,  pears,  cherries,  etc., 
are  always  best  flavored  -from  the  top  of  the  tree 
But  I  suppose  there  are  certain  limits,  beyond  which 
the  sap  would  be  so  loaded  with  nutriment,  that  it 
could  not  freely^circulate." 

The  sap  being  determined  so  powerfully  to  the 
extremities  of  the  branches,  the  most  unremitting 
attention  is  required  upon  the  part  of  the  vine 
dresser,  so  that  the  bearing  shoots  may  be  equally 
distributed  along  the  entire  plant  and  an  equal 
amount  of  nutriment  directed  to  each. 

But  if  through  negligent  management  the  bearing 
shoots  or  spurs  are  allowed  to  die  out  on  the  lower 
part  of  the  vine,  it  will  be  difficult,  if  not  impossible, 
to  replace  them. 

By  judicious  pruning,  the  entire  head  of  the  vine 
may  be  so  reduced  that  there  will  be  abundant  nutri- 
ment for  all  the  buds,  and  by  promptly  and  carefully 
stopping  the  more  vigorous  shoots,  the  sap  may  bo 
*6 


130  OPEN    AIE    GKAPE    CULTURE. 

SO  directed  to  the  weaker  ones  tliat  no  difficulty  of 
this  ivind  need  occur. 

II.  In  this  connection,  we  may  consider  a  rule — 
which  is  laid  down  as  a  jprincijple^  however,  by  most 
arboricultural  authorities — the  buds  are  developed 
with  greater  vigor  upon  a  brancli  which  is  cut  short, 
than  upon  one  which  is  left  long.  ^ 

This  is  true,  but  must  be  accepted  with  limitations. 
If  there  be  two  shoots  springing  from  the  same  stem, 
one  being  pruned  short  and  the  other  long,  the  buds 
on  the  long  branch  will  be  developed  with  the  great- 
est vigor.  If,  however,  the  shoots  be  upon  different 
stems,  the  buds  upon  that  which  is  pruned  most 
closely  will  push  most  strongly. 

This  we  might  anticipate,  from  the  fact  that  there 
is  more  root  power  (if  we  may  use  the  expression)  to 
a  given  number  of  buds.  But  experiment  would  lead 
us  to  believe  that- if  the  lower  buds  are  removed  so 
that  the  same  number  of  eyes  are  left  on  both,  tlie 
longest  would  have  the  advantage — at  least  at  first. 

But  as  sap  moves  with  greater  difficulty  through 
old  than  through  young  wood,  the  shortest  shoot  soon 
overtakes  its  companion  and  outstrips  it.  This  prin- 
ciple is  well  exemplified  in  tlie  rampant  growth  of 
those  suckers  which  spring  from  old  vines  near  the 
ground.  They  will  frequently  grow  twenty  or  thirty 
feet  in  a  season,  while  the  strongest  shoots  at   the 


PRUNING   GRAPE   ^mES.  131 

extremities  of  tlie  old  branches  do  not  exceed  from 
five  to  eight. 

Upon  these  principles  is  founded  the  rule  which 
directs  us  to  cut  back  plants  which  have  made  a 
weak  growth,  or  have  become  old,  gnarled  and  hard, 
BO  that  they  may  throw  up  strong,  vigorous  shoots. 

III.  The  sap  supplied  by  the  roots  must  be  elabo- 
rated by  the  leaves,  before  it  is  fitted  for  the  forma- 
tion of  wood  or  fruit,  and  the  development  of  the 
roots  is  in  direct  proportion  to  the  increase  of  leaves. 

From  this,  it  follows  :  1st.  That  it  is  injurious  to 
remove  the  leaves  from  the  plant,  with  a  view  to 
ripen  the  fruit  by  the  admission  of  sun  and  air  (this 
point  has  been  fully  discussed,  page  110,  et  seq). 

2.  That  during  the  first  two  years'  growth  of  the 
plants,  the  production  of  leaves  shoald  be  encouraged 
as  much  as  possible,  so  as  to  aid  in  the  development 
of  roots.  Hence  the  plants  should  be  carefully  tied 
up,  so  as  to  preserve  the  leaves  clean,  active  and  unin- 
jured, and  abundant  light  and  air  should  be  furnished, 
so  that  they  may  be  able  to  perform  their  part  with 
efficiency.  This  being  the  case,  it  may  be  asked  why 
we  advise  the  stopping  of  the  laterals  which  certainly 
form  leaves,  and  hence  must  increase  the  growth  of 
the  roots.  Two  reasons  may  be  given  for  the  practice 
either  of  which  are  ample.  The  first  is  that  it  is  not 
the  leaves,  j^^r  se^  which  do  good,  but  their  action  on 


132  OPKN    AIR   GKAPE   CULTURE. 

the  Bap,  toeifect  whicli,  they  must  be  supplied  with 
air  and  light.  Now,  if  the  leaves  on  the  laterals  are 
allowed  to  grow,  they  crowd  the  foliage  at  the  base 
of  the  plant,  so  that  many  of  the  leaves  are  partially 
shaded,  while  if  these  laterals  are  prevented  from 
growing,  the  sap  which  would  be  absorbed  by  them 
goes  to  the  elongation  and  enlargement  of  the  main 
stem,  by  which  the  leaves  are  disposed  over  a  greater 
surface  and  consequently  maintain  a  more  vigorous 
action.  And,  as  during  the  first  two  years  at  least, 
the  production  of  canes  well  ripened  in  their  whole 
length,  is  no  object,  seeing  that  they  are  all  to  be  cut 
away  at  the  winter  pruning,  the  vines  should  not  be 
stopped,  but  should  be  allowed  to  grow  to  the  end  of 
the  season.  For  as  the  roots  require  a  certain  degree 
of  warmth  to  enable  them  to  grow,  and  as  the  earth 
is  in  the  best  condition  as  regards  temperature,  just 
at  the  close  of  the  growing  season,  it  is  best  to  main- 
tain a  vigorous  action  in  the  roots  at  that  time — a 
time  when  they  can  make  the  most  of  it. 

The  second  reason  is,  that  the  sap,  as  before  stated, 
flows  most  vigorously  through  stout,  free-growing 
shoots.  !N"ow,  by  removing  the  laterals,  we  increase 
the  vigor  of  the  main  stem  as  well  as  its  size,  and 
hence  not  only  obtain  an  enlarged,  but  a  more 
suitable  channel  for  the  sap  to  flow  in.  The  conse. 
quence  is,  that  a  well  trained  shoot  will  far  exceed  tlie 


PEUNma   GKAPE  VINES.  133 

aggregate  of  the  same  shoot  and  its  laterals,  if  it  be 
neglected  during  its  growth. 

TV.  The  more  the  sap  is  impeded  -in  its  course,  the 
less  vigorous  will  be  the  shoots  produced,  but  the 
greater  the  tendency  to  bear  fruit.  This  is  exempli- 
fied in  the  pear-tree,  where  the  branches  are  bent  in 
order  to  produce  fruit  buds,  and  also  in  the  common 
practice  of  bending  the  canes  of  the  vine  into  bows 
and  spirals,  so  that  the  buds  may  burst  equally  and 
produce  fruit. 

y.  Whatever  tends  to  diminish  the  vigor  of  the 
shoots  and  to  force  the  sap  into  the  fruit,  enlarges 
the  size  and  improves  the  flavor  of  the  latter. 

Upon  this  law  depends  the  practice  of  summer 
pruning,  which  has  been  fully  discussed  in  a  previous 
chapter.  And  as  it  is  necessary  not  only  to  diminish 
the  vigor  of  the  shoots,  but  to  force  the  sap  thereby 
saved  into  the  fruit,  the  object  of  destroying  all  fruit- 
less shoots  (in  bearing  vines)  is  obvious,  as  well  as 
the  necessity  of  attending  to  the  health  of  the  roots. 

Such  are  the  general  principles  which  should  regu- 
late the  proper  pruning  of  all  trees ;  though-  they 
have  been  expressed  chiefly  with  reference  to  the 
vine.  In  pruning  with  a  view  to  the  production  of 
fruit,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  know  the  peculiar 
fruit-bearing  habit  of  the  plant  under  consideration. 
Thus  upon  the  peach,  fruit  is  always  borne  upon   the 


134:  OPEN   AIR   GRAPE    CULTURK. 

last  year's  shoots ;  the  pear  bears  its  fruit  upon  spurs 
which  have  been  formed  during  the  previous  year, 
upon  old  wood,  and  the  fruit  of  the  vine  is  always 
borne  upon  shoots  of  the  curi-ent  year,  these  shoots 
proceeding  from  either  last  year's  shoots,  or  wood, 
which  is  much  older.  The  last  assertion  is  one  which 
conflicts  with  the  statements  of  most  of  our  pomolo- 
gists,  and  therefore  it  is  incumbent  upon  us  to  give 
some  evidence  of  its  truth.     Thus,  Barry  says; 

"  It  must  be  observed,  that  the  grape  vine  pro- 
duces its  fruit  on  shoots  of  the  current  year  produced 
from  eyes  on  the  previous  year's  wood." 

Du  Breuil  is  more  positive,  and  states  that  shoots 
which  accidentally  spring  from  old  wood  never  pro- 
duce grapes.  His  words  are :  "  Dans  la  vigne,  les 
grappes  sont  attachees  sur  des  bourgeons  naissant  sur 
les  sarments  formes  pendant  I'ete  precedent.  Les 
bourgeons  developpes  accidentellement  sur  le  vieux 
bois  ne  portent  jamais  des  grappes." 

"We  were  rather  surprised  at  this  assertion,  as  it 
appeared  to  contradict  our  own  observation.  But 
lest  it  might  be  that  the  shoots  whicli  we  had  in  view, 
had  been  produced  by*  the  remains  of  last  year's 
rubbed  out  buds,  we  carefully  watched  a  piece  of  old 
wood  'during  one  season,  so  as  to  assure  ourselves 
that  no  buds  had  sprung  from  it  between  certain 
marked   points.     Next  season  the  head  of  this  old 


PEUKINa   GKAPE   VINES.  135 

vine  was  pruned  so  severely  as  to  cause  several 
shoots  to  issue  from  the  previously  barren  wood. 
Two  of  these  bore  fruit. 

In  performing  this  experiment,  we  kept  carefully 
in  view  the  difficulties  attendant  upon  bringing  it  to 
a  successful  result,  and  although  we  succeeded  in 
getting  fruit  from  only  two  out  of  nine  shoots,  still, 
this  was  sufficient  to  establish  the  point.  In  perform- 
ing it,  care  will  be  necessary  to  prune  with  sufficient 
severity  to  force  the  buds  out  of  the  barren  wood, 
and  yet  to  leave  sufficient  head  to  draw'np  the  sap 
and  prevent  the  too  vigorous  growth  of  the  shoots 
after  they  are  formed  ;  otherwise  the  blossoms  may 
change  to  tendrils.  This  experiment  does  not  sug- 
gest any  newer  or  better  mode  of  pruning  the  vine, 
but  it  throws  new  light  upon  the  laws  which  govern 
the  formation  of  fruit  buds,  and  exemplifies  the  fact 
that  they  are  formed  where  the  vital  forces  of  the  vine 
are  so  balanced  that  there  is  sufficient  vigor  and 
material  to  form  fruit,  and  yet  not  so  much  rampant 
growth  as  to  rob  the  blossoms  of  their  necessary 
nutriment  and  convert  them  into  tendrils. 

That  they  are  so  convertible,  every  cultivator  is 
aware,  for  it  often  happens  that  the  hopes  of  the 
unskillful  vine-dresser  are  disappointed — his  fine 
show  of  blossom  buds,  turning  out  nothing  but  ten- 
drils. 


136  OPEN   ATE   GKAPE   CULTURE. 

We  believe  the  converse  of  this  was  first  shown  by 
Knight,  from  whose  papers  w^e  make  the  following 
extract :  "  Every  bunch  of  grapes  commences  its 
formation  as  a  tendril,  and  it  is  always  within  the 
power  of  every  cultivator  to  occasion  it  to  remain  a 
tendril.  The  blossoms  are  all  additions,  the  forma- 
tion of  which  is  always  dependent  upon  other  agents ; 
and  if  any  considerable  part  of  the  leaves  be  taken 
off  the  branch  prematurely,  or  if  the  vine  be  not  sub- 
jected to  the  influence  of  tlie  requisite  degree  of  heat 
and  light,  the  tendrils  will  permanently  retain  their 
primary  form  and  office ;  and  it  is  very  frequently 
observable,  when  much  of  the  foliage  of  fruit-trees 
has  been  destroyed,  by  insects,  or  when  the  previous 
season  has  been  cold  and  wet,  that  blossoms  are 
not  formed  at  all,  or  are  feeble  and  imperfect,  and 
consequently  abortive.     •     •     •     • 

''The  tendrils  of  the  vine,  in  its  internal  organiza- 
tion, is  apparently  similar  to  the  young  succulent 
shoot  and  leaf  stalk  of  the  same  plant,  it  is  abun- 
dantly provided  with  vessels,  or  passages  for  the  sap, 
and  it  is  alike  capable  of  feeding  a  succulent  shoot  or 
a  leaf  when  grafted  upon  it.  It  aj)pears,  therefore, 
not  improbable,  that  a  considerable  quantity  of  the 
moving  fluid  of  the  plant  passes  through  its  tendrils  ; 
and  that  there  is  a  close  connection  between  its  vas- 
cular structure  and  its  motions." 


PRTTNING   GRAPE   VBSTES. 


137 


The  various  systems  of  vine  pruning  which  have 
been  founded  upon  these  general  principles,  may  be 
classitied  according  to  the  part  of  the  vine  from  which 
the  .fruit  buds  are  produced.     Thus,  if  we  suppose  a 


Fig.  2G. 


to  be  a  shoot  of  last  year  ;  b  a  spur  two  years  old,  and 
o  a  branch  three  years  old,  then  w^e  may  by  judicious 
pruning  obtain  fruit,  first  from  the  plump  buds  a  a 
on  the  young  cane  a  ;  secondly  from  the  buds  h  g 
near  its  base ;  thirdly  from  the  buds  e  which  will  be 
found  at  its  junction  with  the  spur  b  ;  and  fourthly 
from  buds  situated  at  /*,  that  is  at  the  junction  of  the 
spur  B  with  the  branch  c.  In  the  latter  case,  how- 
ever, if  the  spur  b  is  old  and  has  borne  several  slioots 
like  A  it  will  require  some  skill  and  very  favorablo 


138  OPEN   ATE    GEAPE   CULTUEE. 

circumstances  to  procure  fruit  from  the  buds  at  f. 
But  if  B  be  always  kept  short,  and  no  shoots  be  al- 
lowed except  from  its  base,  no  difficulty  of  this 
kind  will  arise.  Following  this  arrangement,  then,  we 
have: 

I.  The  long-rod  renewal  system. 

IL  The  long-spur  system. 

III.  The  short,  or  secondary-spur  system. 

lY.  The  close-cut,  or  primary  spur  system. 
This  system  of  classification  we  believe  to  be  the 
only  true  one,  although  we  are  not  aware  that  it  has 
been  adopted  by  any  preceding  author.  Each  of 
these  four  systems  is  not  only  distinct,  but  it  may  be 
adapted  to  almost  any  system  of  training,  while  none 
of  them  can  be  well  combined  in  the  same  vine,  un- 
less the  power  of  the  roots  is  greatly  in  excess  over 
the  extent  of  the  branches.  Suppose,  for  example, 
on  a  vine  with  a  well  balanced  head,  a  few  long  rods 
are  left.  ]S"o  buds  will  start  from  the  base  of  the 
spurs.  But  if  all  parts  are  treated  alike,  the  eyes  will 
break  equally  and  in  general  will  be  all  fruitful.  The 
facility  with  which  this  principle  may  be  explained 
and  enforced  is  greatly  increased  by  a  clear  and  sys- 
tematic classification,  such  as  we  have  given  above, 
and  most  authors  have  been  aware  of  the  importance 
of  such  a  classification  ;  but  if  tlie  reader  will  com- 
pare the  attempts  of  Loudon,  who   depends  in  hig 


PRTINTN^G    GRAPE   VINES.  139 

classification,  not  only  upon  tlie  system  of  pruning, 
but  of  training;  of  Mcintosh,  whose  three  systems  are 
"  the  spur,"  "  the  long-rod,"  and  "  the  irregular  " 
forms;  of  McPhail,  who  has  the  "fruit-tree  method;" 
"'the  spurring-in  system"  and  "  the  long-rod  sytem ;"  of 
Yon  Babo,  who  has  "head  pruning,"  "limb  prun- 
ing," "frame  pruning,"  and  several  sub-varieties 
named  after  the  localities  in  which  they  have  been 
adopted  ;  and  most  of  our  American  authors,  who  have 
simply  the  renewal  and  spur  methods,  with  that  given 
above,  we  think  he  cannot  but  give  his  preference  to 
the  latter.  And  as  all  systems  of  pruning  with  which 
we  have  ever  met  may  be  easily  referred  to  one  or 
the  other  of  our  four  classes,  we  will  describe  them  in 
detail  and  give  a  few  illustrations  of  each,  as  derived 
from  the  practice  of  our  best  growers. 

I.  The  long-rod  or  renewal  system  is  generally 
attributed  to  Clement  Hoare,  who  adopted  it  in  his 
"Practical  treatise  on  the  Cultivation  of  the  Yine,"  and 
as  he  has  not  seen  fit  to  give  the  credit  of  it  to  prior 
authors,  most  of  his  readers  have  awarded  it  to 
him.  But  it  is  substantially  the  "  new  method  "  of 
Switzer;  the  alternate  system  of  Speedily,  and  the 
"  new  and  experimentally  proved  superior  method" 
of  Kecht.  -It  is  certainly  very  old,  though  it  is  still 
commonly  called  the  "  new  method." 

The  system  which  we  have  adopted  as  the  best  for 


140  OPEN   AIR   GKAPE   CULTURE. 

vineyards  and  gardens  in  the  northern  States  where 
our  native  vines  are  cultivated  is  substantially  the 
system  explained  by  Hoare.  The  system  pursued  in 
Ohio  and  in  many  European  vineyards,  is  also  a 
modification  of  the  long-rod  system,  but  as  we  pro- 
pose to  give  a  full  account  of  Ohio  vine  culture 
amongst  our  examples  of  American  vineyard  prac- 
tice, we  need  not  dwell  upon  it  here. 

The  foUowino;  are  a  few  of  the  most  eleo^ible  modi- 
fications  which  have  been  proposed  : 

Mr.  John  Mearns,  in  the  Horticultural  Transactions, 
(vol.  iv.)  describes  a  system  which  is  not  only  well 
adapted  to  the  hot-house  culture  of  the  vine,  but  is 
one  of  the  best  with  which  we  are  acquainted  where 
it  is  desired  to  fruit  quickly,  a  great  variety  of  grape 
vines  in  a  small  place.     This  method  is  as  follows : 

"  My  method  of  managing  vines  is  in  some  respects 
different  from  any  other  with  which  I  am  acquainted  ; 
by  it  I  have  never  failed,  for  the  last  eleven  years,  to 
obtain  invariably  the  same  luxuriant  crops,  although 
I  have  never  allowed  above  one-third  of  the  bunches 
which  showed  themselves  to  remain  on  the  vine  ;  and 
each  succeeding  crop  has  been  as  uniform  as  if  the 
branches  had  been  placed,  artificially,  over  the  whole 
roof.  I  have  no  doubt  bat,  under  the  same  treat 
ment,  the  vines  will  continue  to  be  equally  produc- 
tive for  any  length  of  time.     The  shoots  are  so  vigor- 


PKUNmG   GRAPE   VmES.  141 

ous  that  theii;  girth  is,  generally,  at  the  end  of  the 
season,  from  an  inch  and  a  half  to  an  inch  ^nd  three 
quarters.  The  branches,  in  their  most  luxuriant 
growth,  never  appear  in  any  confusion,  even  to  those 
who  are  but  little  skilled  in  the  cultivation  of  grapes, 
and  the  method  is  so  simple^ that  it  may  be  described 
w^itli  the  assistance  of  figures,  so  as  to  be  perfectly  com- 
prehended by  any  person  in  the  least  acquainted  with 
the  natiu-e  of  the  vine.  I  have  never  deviated  from 
it  since  I  planted  the  vines  in  the  spring  of  1806. 

"  My  vines  were  planted  two  feet  and  a  half  apart, 
and  being  watered  to  settle  the  earth  round  their 
balls,  I  headed  them  down  to  within  a  foot  of  the  soil, 
as  here  represented. 


Fig.  27. 

"I  only  allowed  one  shoot  to  proceed  from  each 
plant  the  first  year ;  rubbing  off  all  the  others  before 
they  had  completely  burst  into  leaf,  the  uppermost  be- 
ins:  the  one  I  retained.  In  the  course  of  the  summer  I 
watered  them  with  soft  pond  water,  as  I  found  they 
wanted  it,  and  frequently  with  drainings  from  the 
farm-yard,  and  with  soap  suds,  when  I  could  procure 
any. 

*'  During  the  first  summer,  the  vines  made  quite  as 


142  OPEN   AIR   GRAPE   CULTURE. 

much  progress  as  I  could  liave  expected,  and  their 
differeni  degrees  of  vigor  were  nearly  in  proportion 
to  the  state  of  the  roots  when  planted.  "When  the 
leaves  had  fallen  in  the  end  of  the  year,  I  cut  them 
down  to  the  second  or  third  eye,  when  they  had  this 
a]3pearance.    (Fig.  28.)  ^ 


Fig.  28. 


''  In  the  beginning  of  the  succeeding  February,  I  ex- 
cited them  gradually  into  action  by  a  little  fire  heat, 
and  when  the  buds  were  ready  to  burst  I  rubbed  all 
off  but  the  two  finest  on  each  plant ;  the  strongest  of 
these  I  intended  to  furnish  bearing  wood  for  the 
lower  half  of  the  roof  for  the  following  year.  The 
most  feeble  of  the  two  was  cut  down  to  the  second  or 
third  eye,  at  the  end  of  the  season,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  strongest  shoot  was  reduced  to  eight 
feet,  being  the  length  of  the  lower  half  of  the  rafter. 

Whilst  they  were  growing  during  the  second  sum- 
mer, I  kept  the  shoots  regularly  trained  uj)ward,  di- 
vesting them  of  tendrils  and  lateral's.  1  only  allowed 
the  strongest  of  the  two  leading  shoots  to  run  about 
three,  four  or  five  joints  beyond  the  middle  of  the 


PEUNma   GKAPE   VINES. 


143 


roof  (where  I  intended  to  cut  tliem  at  tlieir  winter 
pruning),  according  to  the  vigor  of  the  different 
shoots ;  and  then  I  pinched  oif  their  tops,  in  order  to 
strengthen  the  eyes  for  the  ensuing  season.  The 
weaker  shoots  I  only  suffered  to  run  about  three  four, 
or  five  feet,  according  to  their  strength,  and  I  then 
pinched  off  their  tops,  never  allowing  them  to  push- 
above  two  or  three  eyes  from  the  same  place,  during 
the  remainder  of  the  season,  without  pinching  them 
back ;  and  then  retaining  only  a  single  eye,  unless  I 
found  it  necessary,  in  consequence  of  the  vigor  of  the 

Ori  OA  C>^  O 


Fig.  29. 


?me. 
leaf. 


I  kept  the  laterals  stopped  back  also  to  the  first 
At  the  fall  of  the  leaf,  I  cut  the  leading  shoots 


144:  OPEN   AIR    GRAPE    CULTURE. 

at  the  middle  of  the  rafter,  and  the  lower  one  at  the 
the  eje,  as  is  here  represented.     (Fig.  28.) 

"The  preceding  sketch  represents  four  separate 
vine-plants,  at  the  end  of  the  second  season  after 
they  had  been  planted,  when  the  strongest  shoot  had 
been  headed  down  to  the  middle  of  the  rafter  d,  and 
the  weakest  shoot  to  c. 

In  the  third  season,  I  carefully  preserved  the  upper- 
most shoot  from  the  end  of  my  bearing  branch  at  d, 
as  a  leader  to  furnish  the  upper  part  of  the  rafter 
with  bearing  wood  for  the  next  year;  and  I  also 
trained  upward  the  leading  shoot  from  the  bottom 
spur  c,  which  I  intended  should  become  the  bearing 
branch  for  the  lower  half  of  the  roof  in  the  follow- 
ing season.  I  was  careful  that  none  of  the  tops  of 
these  leaders  should  meet  with  accident,  till  they  had 
reached  their  destination  for  the  season — that  was 
about  three  or  four  joints  beyond  where  they  were 
intended  to  be  cut  down,  to  the  winter  pruning.  All 
the  buds  on  the  bottom  spur  c,  were  rubbed  off, 
except  the  leading  one.  As  I  bore  in  mind  the  neces- 
sity of  a  bottom  spur  to  produce  a  succession  shoot 
from  the  bottom  in  the  following  year,  which  was 
necessary  to  the  regularity  of  the  system  I  contem- 
plated, I  selected  one  of  the  most  convenient  buds 
for  my  purpose,  from  the  bottom  of  the  old  stems,  all 
of  which  were  now  putting  out  several  buds ;  but  I 


PRUNrNG   GRAPE   VESTES.  145 

suffered  none  except  the  selected  one,  to  remain  long 
aft^r  it  had  made  its  appearance.  The  management 
of  the  young  shoots  of  the  year  was,  in  this  and  the 
following  seasons,  the  same  as  I  have  before  detailed. 
"  In  the  autumn  of  this,  the  third  season,  the  lower 
half  of  the  house  was  furnished  with  a  crop  of  ripe 
grapes  upon  the  wood  of  the  preceding  year,  and 
parallel  to  it  on  each  vine  grew  a  young  shoot, 
intended  to  bear  the  lower  crop  the  next  year; 
whilst  the  upper  half  of  the  house  had  single  shoots 
trained  from  the  end  of  the  bearing  wood,  which 
shoots  were  also  to  bear  a  crop  the  next  year  ;  and 
besides  these,  a  third  shoot  on  each  vine  had  been 
trained  from  the  bottom  bud,  which  I  had  not 
removed,  and  which  were  about  four  feet  in  length, 
having  been  treated  as  the  weaker  slioots  in  the 
second  year's  management,  which  I  have  described, 
and  to  which  they  were  similar.  "When  this  half 
crop  was  gathered  and  the  leaves  had  dropped,  I  cut 
off  the  top  leaders  level  with  the  uppermost  wire  of 
the  house  to  which  they  were  tied,  and  the  lower 
leaders  level  with  the  middle  of  the  roof  (the  top 
and  bottom  leaders,  or  bearing  wood  for  the  next  sea- 
son, being  each  eight  feet  long),  and  the  bottom  or 
weak  shoot,  above  described,  was  cut  down  to  the 
second  or  third  eye,  as  the  lower  shoot  had  been  cut 
in  the  preceding  winter.     All  the  spurs  of  the  lowe^ 

1 


146 


OPEN  AIK   GKAPE   CULTUEE. 


Fig.  80. 


PETJNUfG   GRAPE   VESTES.  147 

part  of  tlie  slioot,  wliicli  had  now  reached  the  top  of 
the  house  and  had  borne  the  crop  of  grapes,  were 
cut  clean  out.  The  following  was  the  appearance  of 
the  same  four  vines,  after  thej  had  been  pruned  in 
the  third  winter,  when  they  were  in  a  state  to  pro- 
duce their  full  crop  in  the  following  season.  (Fig.  30.) 

In  the  fourth  summer  a  full  crop  was  produced 
both  in  the  upper  and  lower  half  of  the  house  ;  the 
longer  shoot  d  bore  its  bunches  on  the  upper  half  of 
its  length,  and  it  was  not  suffered  to  extend  itself  by 
a  leading  shoot ;  the  shorter  shoot  c  bore  its  bunches 
on  its  whole  length,  and  extended  itself  by  a  leading 
shoot  to  the  top  of  the  house  ;  the  sj^ur  e  was  suffered 
to  become  a  shoot,  extending  a  few  joints  beyond  half 
the  length  of  the  rafter,  and  from  the  bottom  of  the 
old  wood  a  weaker  shoot,  as  before,  was  trained,  to 
become  the  foundation  of  the  lower  shoot  of  the 
next  season.  In  the  pruning  season,  d,  which  had 
become  the  longest  branch  in  the  previous  winter, 
was  entirely  cut  away  from  the  bottom  ;  the  shorter 
branch  c,  which  had  now  become  the  longest,  was 
stripped  of  its  spurs  on  its  lower  half  of  the  old  wood, 
and  its  upper  half  was  left  for  bearing ;  the  extended 
spur  E,  became  the  lower  bearing  branch,  and  the 
weak  shoot  f  (Fig.  31.)  at  the  bottom,  was  reduced  to 
a  spur,  to  furnish  the  lower  wood  for  the  next  year. 

The  following  figure   represents  the  plants  aftei 


148 


OPEN   AIR   GRAPE   CULTDKE. 


n«.8i. 


PRUNING   GKAPE   VINES.  149 

being  pruned  the  fourth  season,  the  sides  being 
reversed. 

With  tliis  alternation  of  pruning,  the  system  lias 
been  continued  to  the  present  time,  and  may  con- 
tinue as  long  as  it  shall  be  desirable  to  have  the  house 
in  bearing. 

During  the  last  four  years,  I  have  stopped  the 
bearing  branches  at  the  bunch,  instead  of  the  next 
joint  above  it,  which  is  the  usual  practice ;  for  I 
found  that  the  fruit  did  equally  well  and  it  divested 
the  branch  of  an  incumbrance,  while  it  allowed  a 
much  larger  portion  of  light  to  come  into  the  house, 
too-ether  with  a  more  free  circulation  of  air  amono^ 
the  fruit  and  young  wood. 

1  blind  all  the  eyes  on  each  fruit  spur  as  soon  a» 
they  push,  except  the  uppermost,  which  I  retain  to 
draw  up  the  sap  to  nourish  the  fruit.  I  never  suffer 
them  to  push  above  a  joint  or  two,  before  I  pinch 
them  back,  always  cautiously  retaining  an  eye.  By 
constant  stopping,  the  eyes  soon  increase  to  a  large 
cluster,  when  I  frequently  find  it  expedient  to  pinch 
out  a  great  part  of  them  with  my  finger  nails,  unless 
I  see  danger  of  its  exciting  my  next  year's  fruiting 
eyes  to  burst  prematurel3\  I  am  particularly  cau- 
tious that  nothing  shall  happen  to  injure  the  leaf  that 
accompanies  the  bunch,  for  if  that  is  lost,  the  fruit,  of 
course,  will  come  to  nothing. 


150 


OPEN   AIR   GRAPE   CULTURE. 


'    During  the  summer  I  inspect  tlie  vines  regularly 
every  morning ;  seeing  that  the  ends  of  my  leaders 


Fig. 


are  in  their  proper  places,  and  not  obstructed  ;  pick- 
ing off  tendrils  and  stopping  the  laterals  above  the 


Fig.  88. 


first  leaf,  on  my  next  year's  bearing  wood,  tying 
down  fruit  spurs  carefully,  and  stopping  any  shoot 
that  may  have  sprung  from  the  ends  of  them;  as 


PRUNING   GRAPE  VINES. 


151 


well  as  otlier  slioots  that  may  come  out  from  the  pre- 
viously stopped  laterals. 

Fig.  32  shows  a  simple  method  of  training  wines 
to  a  trellis  formed  of  light  stakes  or  a  couple  of 


Pig.  81 

wires.      If  trained  on  the  plan  shown    in   Fig.   33 
neither  stakes  nor  trellises  will  be  required. 

II.  The  long-spur  system  is  that  upon  which  old 
vines  are  trained,  and  consists  in  cutting  the  young 


152  OPEN    AIR    GRAPE   CULTURE. 

wood  the  previous  year,  Lack  to  three  or  four  eyes, 
all  weak  shoots  and  dead  wood  boin<^  removed. 

Sir  J.  Paxtoii,  in  the  "Gardener's  Chronicle"  for 
1842,  gives  the  following  directions  for  pruning 
vines  on  the  spur  system.  The  cut  there  given  (Fig. 
34)  has  heen  often  reproduced,  but  in  general  it  has 
been  so  reduced  that  the  character  of  the  shoots  is  not 
clearly  seen  : 

"  It  represents  a  portion  of  the  vine  when  pruned 
in  autumn,  on  the  spur  system,  with  short  rods  of 
live  or  six  ey(3S  each,  lei't  at  convenient  intervals  on 
the  oldest  branches  throughout  the  vine.  The  per- 
pendicular main  shoots  should  not  be  less  than  two 
feet  apart,  and  when  pruning  them  no  useless  eyes 
fihould  be  left,  that  is,  no  eye  should  be  allowed  to 
remain  but  where  a  shoot  is  desired  in  the  following 
season.  By  attending  to  this,  the  vine  will  not  have 
to  develop  (as  is  usually  the  case),  an  immense  quan- 
tity of  superlluous  branches  ;  and  although  the  ope- 
ration may  appear  a  tedious  one  at  the  time  of  prun- 
ing, an  immense  saving  of  labor  and  time  may  bo 
effected  at  a  buhier  period  in  the  -spring,  and  the 
quantity  of  IVuit  may  be  easier  regulated  in  propor- 
tion to  the  strength  of  the  vine.  If  this  is  attended 
to,  nothing  will  be  required  in  the  summer  but 
securing  the  young  fruit-bearing  shoots  to  the  wall, 
and  shortening  tlu^n  to  one  joint  above  the  bunch 


I'lvUNINcJ     CK'.M'lt:    VINICH. 


ir>:^ 


as  soon  as  llio  iViill.  is  sot,  o\co|>liii<.»;  llio  loa(liii<j; 
sliools,  uliicli  sliould  not  l)o  sl(>|»|>('(l  iiiilil  llic  lower 
j>:ui  is  ri|>(Mi('(l  ;  oliiorwiso  llio  main  ovos  lor  Hio  \\v\{, 
boiisoii  \\\:\\  ho  iiidiicod  (o  <'i-<»\v  |>i'oiiial  urolv.  In 
autunni  llio  }'oiiii^-  wood  iVom  llio  spurs  is  sliorli'iiod 
back  to  Olio,  or  at  inosl,lo  two  i»vos,  and  llio  tormlnal 
shoots  in  |»i-o|)orlion  to  Ihoir  slron^lh;  hut  lor  IIk^ 
stron^'ost  wood,  from  oi^ht  lo  twolvo  ojos  will  ho  IoiiikI 
as  many  as  will  hi-oaU  woll. 

"  Wlu.'n  coiiinioiiciii^j;-  to  1  rain  a  3'onn^'  vino  in  thin 
niamicr,  llu'sido  hraiichos  should  not  ho  brou^'ht  to 
the  horizontal  |)ositiioii  at  lirsl,  hut  loworod  ^radiudly 
as  llio  minihoror  suilahh'  hi-aiichos  for  U|Mii;ht  stonis 
ari^  ohtaincd  ;  hy'  this  moans  llioy  acijiiiro  slron;j,th 
i'aslor  than  if  trained  hoi'i/.onlall y  at  lirsl."" 

it  is  ohvioiis  that  this  syslom  is  noai'Iy  the  sanio  as 
tlio  loii^-  rod,  oi-  i-oiiowal  systcMii- ttu^  diHrri'iico  hoiii^- 
tlial  instead  of  lakiii;j;"  sevi'ral  of  the  iiitper  hiids  on 
(!aeh  .youn«^  cano,  wo  uso  only  one  and  lia\'e  a,  ^i-eat 
many  canes  <M'  spui's. 

'I'lio  only  i-eal  advanta|;t^  to  he  derived  from  it  (so 
far  as  wo  ai*e  ahle-  to  Ji'd^i^-e),  and  that  upon  which  its 
dislinctive  reaturos  is  lounded,  is  that,  tln^  huds  from 
which  the  next  year's  ci'op  is  to  he  ohlaine(|  aro 
always  woll  rijx'iiecl.  We  would,  Iherelore,  prel'er  if 
to  the  lii'st  systom,  whert^  the  vines  a,i"e  tender,  oi-  iho 
climale  iinJaAoi-ahle,  and  deem  il  of  sunicient  inipor- 


154 


OPEN   AIB   GRAPE   CULTURE. 


tance  to  give  in  detail  a  method  of  treating  the  spurs 
during  a  series  of  years. 


]Urr?p'^^ 


Fig.  85. 


Fig.  35  (a)  shows  a  portion  of  a  young  cane  which 
may  either  form  part  of  the  vertical  branches  on  a 
trellis,  or  the  single  stem  of  a  young  vine.  The  first 
season  of  fruiting,  the  tendrils  should  be  cut  ofi'  and 
the  buds  thinned  to  from  six  to  ten  inches  aj)art, 
depending  upon  the  vigor  of  the  variety  ;  and  so  that 
they  will  be  alternately  on  different  sides  of  the  cane, 
thus  leaving  the  buds  on  each  side  from  12  to  20 


inches  apart.    IN'ot  more  than  four  or  five  buds  should 
be  left  on  a  cane  during  the  first  season. 


PRUNING   GRAPE   VINES. 


155 


At  the  close  of  tlie  first  season,  after  the  leaves 
have  fallen,  the  cane  will  present  the  appearance 
shown  in  Fig.  36.  Here  a  is  the  main  cane;  sis  the 
shoot  produced  bj  the  buds  on  Fig.  35  ;  and  c  is  a  bud 
at  the  base  of  this  shoot.  Prune  the  shoot  b  to  one 
plump  bud,  as  shown  in  the  figure  and  allow  the  bud 
o  to  push  and  form  a  shoot ;  stopping  it,  however,  as 
soon  as  it  has  made  a  few  leaves. 


Fig.  87. 

'Next  season  we  will  have  the  shoot  d,  (Fig.  37)  with 
several  nice,  plump  buds,  and  the  old  spur  b,  with  its 
shoot  which  bore  fruit  last  year.  Cut  d  back  to  one 
or  two  eyes,  and  cut  b  away  entirely.  The  buds  on  d 
will  push  and  bear  fruit,  and  a  bud  will,  no  doubt, 
push  from  the  base  to  form  the  spur  for  next  year. 

Fig.  38  shows  the  next  winter  pruning.  From 
this  description,  it  is  obvious  that  we  must,  each 
year,  liave  eyes  to  produce,  not  only  fruit,  but  a 


156 


OPEN   AIR   GRAPE   CULTtlRE. 


young  cane,  wliich  will  form  the  spur  for  next  year. 
If  we  depend  for  this  spur  upon  last  year's  fruiting 


Fig.  88. 

shoots,  our  spur  will  soon  become  so  long,  and  our 
vine  so  encumbered  with  old  wood  as  to  be  quite 
unmanageable,  unless  we  adopt  the  system  to  be  next 
described : 

III.  Here  we  depend  for  our  fruit  upon  buds  pro- 
ceeding from  the  base  of  last  year's  fruiting  shoot, 
this  fruiting  shoot  being  borne  upon  a  spur  attached 
to  the  main  branch.  This  is  the  system  of  pruning 
adopted  at  Thomery,  and  as  no  good  description  of 
it  is  be  found  in  any  American  publication  with 
which  we  are  acquainted,  we  give  the  very  full  and 
lucid  account  by  M.  Dubreuil — a  translation  of  which 
may  be  found  at  the  close  of  the  volume. 

ly.  In  the  short-spur,  or  Thomery  system,  the 
fruit-bearing  shoot  proceeds  from  a  spur  on  the  main 


PRUNING    GRAPE    VINES.  157 

branch,  which  although  short,  is  still  a  spur..  Theory, 
however,  would  lead  us  to  suppose  that  it  might  just 
as  well  proceed  from  the  juuction  of  last  year's 
fruit-bearing  shoot  with  the  main  branch. 


158  OPEN   AIK   GEAPE   CULTURE. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

WALLS     AND     TRELLISES THEIR     INFLUENCE     AND    CON- 
STRUCTION. 

Although  the  influence  of  the  various  forms  of 
walls,  trellises  and  stakes  upon  the  growth  and  matu- 
rity of  the  vine  dej)ends  somewhat  upon  the  system  of 
pruning  and  training  pursued  in  connection  with 
them,  still,  it  cannot  be  doubted  but  that  their  forms 
and  the  materials  of  which  they  are  made  also  exert 
an  influence  which  is  by  no  means  to  be  disregarded. 

In  this  country,  walls  devoted  to  the  culture  of  the 
vine  hav^e  not  been  used  to  a  sufficient  extent,  to 
aiford  reliable  data  as  to  the  benefit  to  be  derived  from 
them.  Many  single  vines,  however,  are  trained  on 
the  ends  of  houses  and  along  board  fences,  and  from 
a  careful  examination  of  several  such  examples,  we 
are  inclined  to  believe  that  in  exposed  situations  the 
erection  of  cheap  walls  would  pay  well,  even  in  vine- 
yards. 

"When  vines  are  jadiciously  trained  in  front  of 
brick  walls  and  at  a  few  inches^  distance  from  them, 
the    grapes    uniformly  ripen  sooner  than  those   on 


WALLS    AND   TRELLISES.  159 

exposed  trellises.  The  wood  also  is  more  perfectly 
matured,  and  tliis,  during  a  succession  of  years,  exerts 
a  considerable  and  favorable  influence  on  the  vine. 

The  efiect  of  walls  doubtless  depends  upon  two 
causes,  one  being  the  higher  temperature  produced 
by  the  radiation  from  the  surface  of  the  solid  wall, 
and  the  other  being  the  protection  from  wind  and 
storms  which  such  a  structure  affords. 

That  the  latter  point  is  one  of  material  importance, 
we  are  well  satisfied,  for  however  essential  ventilation 
may  be  to  the  healthy  growth  of  the  vine,  all  violent 
winds  and  cold  blasts  are  to  be  studiously  avoided. 

A  striking  instance  of  this  is  to  be  seen  in  the  gar- 
den of  a  gentleman  of  this  city.  Several  vines  are 
there  trained  along  the  east  side  of  a  high  board  fence, 
and  although  the  same  judicious  and  systematic  care 
is  given  to  all  parts  of  the  vines,  yet  the  finest  fruit  is 
uniformly  found  a  foot  or  two  below  the  top  of  the 
fence,  l^ow  when  we  remember  that  on  all  open 
trellises  the  finest  grapes  are  found  at  the  top,  since 
all  trees  produce  the  best  fruit  at  the  extremities  of 
the  branches,  we  must  attribute  no  mean  effect  to  the 
protection  afforded  by  the  fence,  since  the  boards  of 
w^hich  it  is  composed  can  scarcely  be  supposed  to 
r'etain  and  radiate  much  heat,  and  its  height  (about 
eight  feet)  is  not  sufficient  to  include  the  limit  to 
which  vines  may  be  judiciously  carried. 


160  OPEN   AXE   GRAPE    CULTURE. 

"  The  actual  temperature  to  which  a  tree  trained 
upon  a  wall  facing  the  sun  is  exposed  is  much  higher 
than  that  of  the  surrounding  air,  not  only  because  it 
receives  a  larger  amount  of  the  direct  solar  rays,  but 
because  of  the  heat  received  by  the  surrounding 
earth,  reflected  from  it  and  absorbed  by  the  wall 
itself.  Under  such  circumstances  the  secretions  of 
the  plant  are  more  fully  elaborated  than  in  a  more 
shady  and  colder  situation,  and  by  aid  of  the  greater 
heat  and  dryness  in  front  of  a  south  wall,  the  period 
of  maturity  is  much  advanced.  In  this  way  we  suc- 
ceed in  procuring  a  Mediterranean  or  Persian  sum- 
mer in  these  northern  latitudes. 

"  When  the  excellence  of  fruit  depends  upon  its 
sweetness,  the  quality  is  exceedingly  improved  by 
such  an  exposure  to  the  sun  ;  for  it  is  found  that  the 
quantity  of  sugar  elaborated  in  a  fruit  is  obtained  by 
an  alteration  of  the  gummy,  mucilaginous,  and  gela- 
tinous matters  jDreviously  formed  in  it,  and  the  quan 
tity  of  those  matters  will  be  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  light  to  which  the  tree,  if  healthy,  has 
been  exposed.  Hence  the  greater  sweetness  of  plums, 
pears,  etc.,  raised  on  walls  from  those  grown  on 
standards.  It  has  been  already  stated  that  an^ 
increase  of  heat  has  been  sought  for  on  walls  by 
blackening  them,  and  we  are  assured  in  the  '  Horti- 
cultural Transactions '  (III.  330)  that,  in  the  cultiva- 


WALLS    AND    TRELLISES.  161 

tioii  of  the  grape,  this  lias  been  attended  with  the 
best  effects.  But,  unless  when  trees  are  young,  the 
wall  ought  to  be  covered  with  foliage  during  the  sum- 
mer, and  the  blackened  surface  would  scarcely  act, 
and  in  the  spring  the  expansion  of  the  flowers  would 
be  hastened  by  it,  which  is  no  advantage  in  cold,  late 
springs,  because  of  the  greater  liability  of  early 
flowers  to  perish  from  cold.  That  a  blackened  surface 
does  produce  a  beneficial  effect  upon  trees  trained 
over  it  is,  however,  probable,  although  not  by 
hastening  the  maturation  of  the  fruit ;  it  is  by  raising 
the  temperature  of  the  wall  in  autumn,  when  the 
leaves  are  falling,  and  the  darkened  surface  becomes 
uncovered,  that  the  advantages  are  perceived  by  a 
better  completion  of  the  process  of  growth,  tlie  result 
of  which  is  the  ripening  the  wood.  This  is  indeed 
the  view  taken  of  it  by  Mr.  Harrison,  who  found  the 
practice  necessary,  in  order  to  obtain  crops  of  pears 
in  late  seasons  at  Wortley,  in  Yorkshire  (see  '  Hort. 
Trans.'  III.  330  and  YI.  453.)  It  hardly  need  be 
added  that  the  effect  of  blackening  will  be  in  propor- 
tion to  the  thinness  of  the  training  and  vice  versa." 
— Lindley. 

The  articles  referred  to  by  Lindley,  being  short 
und  practical,  it  may  be  well  to  transcribe  them. 
Henry  Dawes  writes  thus  to  Sir  Joseph  Banks  :  "I 
take  the  liberty  of  communicating  to  you  my  remarks 


162  OPEN   AIE   GRAPE   CTJLTUEE. 

on  a  garden  wall,  on  whicli  I  have  been  making 
experiments  at  Slongli.  It  faces  the  south,  and 
against  it,  about  the  middle,  a  young  grape  vine  is 
trained.  Two  years  ago  I  covered  a  portion  of  the 
wall  with  thick  black  paint.  The  vine  was  divided 
into  two  equal  parts,  one  half  was  trained  on  the 
painted,  and  the  other  on  the  plain  wall.  The  sea- 
son was  so  unfavorable  last  year,  that  scarcely  any 
out-door  grapes  came  to  perfection ;  but  those  in  the 
blackened  part  of  the  wall  were  much  finer  than  those 
on  the  plain  part.  This  year  the  success  of  my  expe- 
riment has  been  complete.  The  weight  of  fine 
grapes  gathered  from  the  blackened  part  of  the  wall 
was  20  lbs.  10  oz.,  while  the  plain  part  yielded  only 
7  lbs.  1  oz.,  being  little  more  than  one-third  of  the 
other.  The  fruit  on  the  blackened  part  of  the  wall 
was  also  much  finer,  the  bunches  were  larger  and 
ripened  better  than  on  the  other  half ;  the  wood  of 
the  vine  was  likewise  stronger  and  more  covered  with 
leaves  on  the  blackened  part. 

'^  It  is  a  generally  known  fact,  that  a  black,  unpo- 
lished surfi\ce  absorbs  more  rapidly  than  other  colors 
the  sun's  rays,  and  thereby  becomes  sooner  heated. 
It  is  equally  well  known  that  surfaces  which  absorb 
heat  more  quickly,  part  with  it  more  easily  when  the 
source  of  lieat  is  withdrawn,  and  cool  quicker.  In 
the  summer  time,  when  the  days  are  long,  the  wall 


WALLS    AND   TRELLISES.  163 

will  be  more  intensely  heated  under  the  blackened 
surface,  and  the  night  (or  time  of  cooling)  being  short, 
it  may  not  have  returned  to  the  temperature  of  ihe 
air,  before  it  is  again  subjected  to  an  increase  of  heat. 
K  the  time  of  cooling  were  long  enough,  that  part  of 
the  wall  under  the  blackened  surface,  might  become 
actually  cooler  than  the  part  not  blackened,  and  thus 
the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  be  greater  than  when 
the  wall  was  left  with  its  usual  surface.  In  the  sum- 
mer time,  however,  the  wall  is  not  only  more  in- 
tensely heated,  but  probably  retains  a  great  portion 
of  the  heat  during  the  night. 

"  Horticulturists  will  decide  which  of  these  two 
.causes  is  efficient  in  producing  the  effect  I  have 
stated,  or  whether  both  may  not  cooperate ;  it  is  not 
for  me  to  presume  to  do  so,  though  I  should  be 
inclined  to  think,  that  in  this  climate,  the  intensity 
had  more  influence  than  the  uniformity." 

Chas.  Harrison,  gardener  at  lYortley  Hall,  York- 
shire, gives  the  following  directions  for  blackening 
walls : 

"  When  the  leaves  have  fallen  in  the  autumn,  I  take 
the  earliest  opportunity  to  loosen  the  tree  from  the 
wall  and  to  prune  them ;  the  wall  is  then  colored 
with  coal-tar,  mixing  with  every  gallon  of  the  tar  one 
pint  of  linseed  oil,  in  order  to  prevent  it  having  a 
shining  surface  when  dry.      It  is  more  necessary  to 


164:  OPEN    AIR   GRAPE    CULTURE. 

make  this  addition  in  the  hotter  parts  of  tlie  kingdom 
than  it  is  here,  but  even  here  it  is  essential  in  hot 
summers,  for  when  tlie  sun  shines  strongly  on  the 
wall  with  a  shining  black  surface  it  has  appeared  to 
me  to  scorch  those  shoots  which  touch  the  wall ;  but 
this  does  not  happen  when  the  color  is  rendered 
opaque  by  the  mixture  of  tlie  oil  as  recommended. 
If  the  wall  has  not  been  previously  colored,  I  give  it 
a  second  coat  as  soon  as  the  first  is  dry.  In  laying 
on  the  color  care  is  taken  that  the  liquid  is  not 
sprinkled  upon  the  trees,  for  it  would  close  np  the 
pores  of  the  wood  and  consequently  do  injury. 

"After  the  wall  is  colored  I  allow  the  trees  to 
remain  loose  from  the  wall  until  the  coal  tar  has  set 
(unless  strong  winds  prevail,  in  which  case  I  secure 
the  main  limbs  and  branches  to  the  wall),  in  order 
that  the  shoots  may  not  be  damaged  by  coming  in 
contact  with  it  before  it  is  dry.  When  the  wall  has 
become  moderately  dry,  1  nail  the  trees  to  it.  A 
wall  of  sound  bricks  will  not  require  recoloring 
more  than  once  in  ten  years.  Coal  tar  being  very 
cheap,  a  wall  of  considerable  extent  may  be  colored 
for  a  trifling  sum.  Any  dark-colored  paint  will 
answer  the  same  purpose,  but  it  is  far  more  expen- 
sive, and  requires  renewal  more  frequently. 

"  The  dark  color,  absorbing  the  rays  of  the  sun,  the 
wall  acquires  at  least  ten  degrees  of  heat  more  than 


WALLS    AND   TRELLISES.  165 

the  walls  not  colored,  as  directed ;  tin  is  affording 
great  assistance  in  maturing  the  buds  upon  fruit-hear- 
ing shoots,  so  that  the  trees  may  be  productive.  In 
cold  and  wet  seasons,  without  such  aid,  I  should  not. 
have  been  able  to  obtain  ripe  buds  upon  fruit-trees 
under  my  care.  This  I  have  had  ample  proof  of  by 
the  unfruitfulness  of  those  trees  which  are  against 
walls  not  colored,  at  the  same  time  that  trees  against 
colored  walls  were  abundantly  fruitful.  The  wall 
being  colored  is  also  a  preventive  of  insects  harboring 
in  it  and  also  tends  to  keep  it  dry. 

"  The  growth  of  young  trees  is  much  promoted  by 
the  coloring  and  they  are  sooner  brought  to  a  supply 
of  fruitful  buds." 

In  all  cases  in  which  vines  are  trained  in  front  of 
walls  or  fences,  it  is  important  that  a  space  of  from 
six  to  twelve  inches  be  left  between  the  wall  and  the 
trellis  to  which  they  are  fastened.  If  trained  directly 
to  the  wall,  the  vine  will  not  only  be  subject  to  mil- 
dew, but  ventilation  will  be  materially  inteiTupted. 
The  bunches  also,  are  liable  to  injury  when  lying 
against  the  surface  of  the  wall. 

Walls  may,  of  course,  be  constructed  of  any  mate- 
rial, brick,  stone  or  concrete.  Brick  is  probably  the 
most  suitable  material,  though,  as  plain  walls  can  bo 
rapidly  and  cheaply  built  of  concrete,  it  is  piobable 
that  it  might  pay  to  erect  them  on  an  extensive  scale 


166  OPEN   AIR    GKAPE    CULTURE. 

in  some  parts  of  the  country.  In  the  celebrated 
Thomerj  vineyards,  the  walls  are  built  of  clay  with 
a  cap  of  thatch.  It  is  probable  that  walls  built  of 
well  made  sun-burnt  bricks  would  last  a  long  time 
and  answer  a  good  j^urpose  if  properly  protected  by  a 
cap  or  eave  of  board  or  straw. 

But,  for  all  practical  purposes,  our  reliance  for  vine- 
yard training,  in  the  present  state  of  our  experience, 
must  be  upon  properly  arranged  trellises.  We  will, 
therefore,  give  what  we  consider  the  best  mode  of  con- 
structing them. 

If  the  vines  have  been  planted  two  years  previously 
at  distances  of  eight  feet  in  the  rows  and  the  rows  six 
feet  apart,  the  first  step  to  the  erection  of  the  trellises 
is  to  set  up  a  post  between  each  vine  and  slightly  in 
advance  of  the  rows,  so  as  to  facilitate  bending  the 
vines  for  winter  protection.'^'  These  posts  may  be  of 
such  size  and  material  as  the  vine  dresser  may  pro- 
cure. Cedar,  chestnut,  locust  or, oak  make  the  best, 
and  a  good  size  is  four  inches  deep  (across  the  rows) 
and  three  inches  thick.  They  should  stand  from  seven 
to  nine  feet  out  of  the  ground  and  be  sunk  not  less 
than  two  and  a  half  feet — if  three  feet,  all  ihe  better. 
The  two  posts  at  the  ends  of  the  rows  must  be  placed 
so  that  they  cannot  be  drawn  inward.  Various  de- 
vices for  effecting  this  are  shown  in  Figs.  39  and  40. 

*  See  page  107. 


WALLS    AND   TRELLISES. 


167 


One  consisting  simplj  of  a  piece  of  plank  nailed 
across  the  post  so  as  to  afford  a  broad  surface  to  lie 
against  the  earth.     The  other  is  secured  by  a  brace. 


Fig.  89.  Fig.  40. 

which  rests  against  a  large  stone  sunk  below  the  sur- 
face. 

The  posts  having  been  set  in  a  straight  line  and 
reduced  to  a  proper  height,  the  next  step  will  be  to 
nail  two  strips  of  wood,  one  along  the  top  and  the 
other  at  from  9  to  14  inches  from  the  ground,  or  just 
at   such  a  height  that  the  head   of  the  vine-stems 


168  OPEN    AIR   GRAPE   CULTURE. 

(from  which  the  horizontal  arms  spring)  may  reach 
its  upper  edge  when  laid,  against  it.  If  the  trellis  is 
over  seven  and  a  half  feet  high,  it  will  be  well  to  nail 
a  third  slat,  equidistant  between  the  two,  though  it 
is  not  absolutely  necessary.  The  next  step  is  to 
divide  the  spaces  between  the  slats  into  equal  parts 
of  about  15  inches  each.  Thus  if  the  trellis  be  seven 
and  a  half  feet  high,  and  two  slats  (the  lower  one  ten 
inches  from  the  ground)  we  would  divide  into  five 
sj^aces  of  16  inches  each.  If  nine  feet  high  with  three 
slats  (the  lower  one  twelve  inches  from  the  ground) 
we  would  divide  each  of  the  two  spaces  into  three 
divisions  of  16  inches  each.  Then  take  ]S"o.  12-16 
annealed  iron  wire,  twist  a  good  loop  on  the  end,  and 
having  slipped  it  over  a  stout  nail  driven  into  the  end 
post,  draw  the  wire  along  the  posts,  attaching  it  to 
each  with  a  small  staple  well  driven  in  until  the  last 
is  reached,  when  the  wire  may  be  twisted  round  a 
nail  or  pin  and  the  loose  end  secured  by  a  staple. 

Various  devices  have  been  proposed  for  drawing 
the  wire  tight  and  adjusting  it  for  contraction  and 
elongation  according  to  the  temperature,  as  is  done  in 
the  construction  of  fences.  But  we  are  satisfied  that 
there  is  no  necessity  for  this,  as  the  wire  can  be 
drawn  over  a  stretch  of  eight  feet  tight  enough  for  all 
practical  purposes,  while  it  will  always  be  loose 
enough   to   allow  of  any  contraction  that  can  take 


WALLS    AND   TKELLISE8. 


169 


place.  The  truth  is,  that  the  wires  do  not  require  to 
be  so  very  tight ;  even  if  they  do  have  a  little  motion 
from  the  wind,  it  is  not  productive  of  any  injury. 

Our  method  of  putting  up  the  wire  is  as  follows : 
We  first  provide  a  pair  of  strong  wooden  pincers 
such  as  those  shown  in  Fig.  41,  the  handles  of  which 
are  at  least  30  inches  long,  and  having  a  piece  of  stout 
sole  leather  tacked  over  the  jaws. 


Fig.  41. 

Then  having  secured  one  end  of  the  vine  to  the  first 

post  and  uncoiled  the  roll,  laying  it  on  the  ground, 

8 


170  OPEN   Am   GKAPE   etJLTUEE. 

in  front  of  the  posts  to  which  it  is  to  be  fastened  we 
grasp  it  between  the  leather  jaws  of  the  pincers  and 
step  slowly  back,  straining  it  as  much  as  possible  un- 
til we  are  past  the  second  post,  when  an  assistant 
fastens  it  firmly  with  a  small  staple  and  we  are  again 
ready  to  step  back  to  the  next.  By  means  of  this 
contrivance,  the  wire  can  be  laid  on  as  tightly  and 
smoothly  as  possible,  for  all  tlie  kinks  are  taken  out 
by  passing  it  through  the  leather  jaws  of  the  pin- 
cers, which  should  be  well  greased.  It  is  necessary 
to  go  into  the  field  provided  with  several  sets  of 
leathers,  as  they  soon  wear  out,  but  are  easily  re- 
newed. They  should  be  at  least  three  inches  broad, 
so  as  to  straighten  out  the  wire  thoroughly. 

That  wire  is  better  than  wooden  slats  there  can  be 
no  doubt.  It  is  less  in  the  way,  the  vines  cling  to  it 
more  readily  and  the  appearance  is  vastly  superior. 
A  pound  of  E'o.  12  wire  will  stretch  across  three 
posts  (24  ft.)  so  that  a  trellis  8  feet  high  with  two 
wooden  slats  and  five  wires,  each  14  inches  apart,  will 
require  If  lbs.,  which,  at  eight  cents  per  lb.,  will  cost 
about  13  or  14  cents.  As  the  cost  of  the  wire  is  con- 
siderable, some  cultivators  do  with  less.  Dr.  Under- 
bill's trellises  are  seven  feet  high  With  only  thi-ee  wires, 
and  we  believe  no  slats.  But  we  prefer  the  arrange- 
ment just  described,  as  we  can  thus  tie  in  each  shJbt 
conveniently  and  regularly,  and  the  wires  at  14  inches 


WALLS    AND   TRELLISES. 


171 


are  none  too  close  to  have  a  bearing  slioot  on  each. 
When  wire  cannot  be  conveniently  had,  the  follow- 
ing is  a  good  mode  of  putting  up  a  rough  trellis. 

Set  tlie  posts  as  usual,  and  provide  a  number  of 
slender  split  poles  (hoop  poles)  and  also  a  sufficient 
number  of  wire  staples  made  of  strong  wire  (No.  6 
or  8  hard).  Then  secure  the  poles  or  slats  to  the 
posts  by  means  of  the  staples,  the  ends  of  the  poles 
being  jnade  to  lap  over  each  other  so  that  two  may 
be  fastened  by  one  staple.  The  accompanying  figure 
(42)  will  explain  this  better  than  words  can  describe. 


If  the  staples  are  a  little  less  than  the  poles,  the  latte^ 
will  be  held  very  firmly.  J^ails  will  not  answer,  au 
they  are  apt  to  split  the  poles,  and  we  are  inclined  t< 
think  that,  for  ordinary  slats,  staples  would  be  bette>- 
than  nails  on  this  very  account.  If  made  square  and 
light,  they  need  not  be  unsightly,  and  the  cost  is  not 
very  great, 

No  directions  need  be  given  for  the  construction  of 


172 


OPEN   AlK    GKAPE    CULTUKE. 


arbors,  or  those  ornamental  trellises  usually  erected 
in  gardens,  as  their  form  and  arrangement  will  vary 
with  the  taste  of  the  possessor. 

A  very  neat,  simple  and  efficient  support  for  a  single 
vine  trained  on  the  spur  system  is  shown  in  Fig.  43 . 


Fig.  43. 


It  might  be  constructed  so  as  to  be  removable  when 
the  vine  is  laid  down  for  the  winter.  It  h^s  even 
been  proposed  to  have  a  hinge  at  the  foot  of  the  trel- 


WALLS    AND   TRELLISES.  173 

lis  and  lay  down  trellis  and  all.  But  this  would  be 
very  ijijudicious. 

Stakes  are  frequently  used  in  vineyards,  and  also 
in  gardens,  but  do  not  present  any  feature  which  is 
not  more  immediately  connected  with  the  subject  of 
training,  than  with  that  of  the  j^resent  chapter. 

The  materials  of  which  trellises,  etc.,  should  be 
made,  will  as  often  be  governed  by  local  circum- 
stances as  by  any  other  consideration.  As  before  stated, 
cedar,  chestnut,  locust  and  oak,  are  to  be  preferred 
for  posts,  and  any  tough,  light  and  straight-grained 
wood  for  slats.  The  posts  may  be  charred,  where 
they  enter  the  earth,  though  we  should  prefer  to  soak 
them  for  an  hour  or  so  in  boiling  coal  tar.  This  may 
be  readily  done  in  a  large  pot,  or  caldron,  set  np  in 
the  field  over  a  temporary  furnace.  It  will  of  course 
be  wise  to  give  the  whole  structure  a  couple  of  good 
coats  of  paint,  especially  the  wire. 

The  height  to  which  trellises  may  be  carried, 
depends  upon  two  circumstances — the  extent  of  their 
shadow  and  the  influence  of  high  training  upon  tlie 
vines.  The  latter  point  has  been  sufficiently  dis- 
cussed, under  the  head  of  pruning  and  training,  and 
we  find  that  at  a  distance  of  six  feet  no  ordinary  trellis 
will,  in  latitudes  suited  to  the  culture  of  the  grape, 
shade  its  neighbor  during  the  growing  season.  At 
other  times,  shade  is  not  at  all  injurious.     We  had 


174  OPEN   AIE   GEAPE   CULTUKE. 

prepared  extensive  tables,  giving  the  distance  to 
wliich  shadows  will  be  thrown  by  trellises  of  various 
heights,  at  different  seasons  of  the  year,  and  in  dif- 
ferent latitudes ;  but  omit  them  for  the  above  rea- 
sons. ■ 

The  only  limit  which  we  w^ould  set  to  the  height  of 
a  trellis,  w^ould  be  our  ability  to  prune  the  vines  and 
gather  the  fruit,  with  the  aid  of  a  light  stool.  Lad- 
ders are  too  unwieldy  and  involve  too  much  labor, 
except  for  a  few  vines. 


PR0PAGATI0]S1    OF  THE    VINE.  175 


CHAPTEE    X. 

I'KOPAGATION   OF   THE   VINE. 

Young  vine  plants  may  be  raised  from  seeds,  eyes, 
or  cuttings,  or  by  layering  or  grafting,  all  which 
modes  are  in  common  practice,  though  some  are  only 
adapted  to  peculiar  circumstances  and  objects.  We 
shall  give  a  few  practical  directions  for  each. 

Layering. — ^This  is  the  mode  in  which  large,  thrifty 
vines  may  be  most  rapidly  obtained ;  but  it  is  by  no 
means  adapted  to  general  use,  where  large  quantities 
are  required. 

To  procure  a  young  vine  by  layering,  we  take  a 
cane  of  the  preceding  year,  having  a  well  advanced 
shoot ;  and  about  the  middle  of  June,  or  first  of 
July,  cut  it  half  through,  as  shown  in  Fig.  45.  It  is 
then  bent  down  and  pegged  into  a  hole,  about  three 
or  four  inches  deep.  It  should  be  well  watered,  and 
the  application  of  a  little  mulch,  consisting  of  long 
litter,  new-mown  grass,  weeds,  or  any  similar  matter, 
will  prove  of  much  service.  Roots  will  soon  push, 
and  at  the  proper  time  for  transplanting,  it  will  have 
formed  a  fine  healthy  plant.     Larger  and  stronger 


176 


OPEN    AIR   GRAPE    CULTURE. 


vines,  whicli  will  in  some  cases  bear  the  succeeding 
season,  maybe  obtained  by  layering  older  and  stronger 
shoots ;  but  the  most  healthy  and,  we  believe,  the 
most  vigorous,  plants  will  be  produced  by  follow- 
ing the  directions  just  given. 

Instead  of  one  plant,  several  may  be  obtained  from 


Fig.  44. 

the  same  layer,  if  it  be  simply  buried  its  whole  length, 
as  in  Fig.  44.  Koots  will  start  from  each  joint,  and 
consequently  each  joint  will  form  a  plant.  But  where  a 
single  plant  is  wanted,  the  method  shown  in  Fig.  45 
will  give  the  finest  results. 

If  very  fine  plants  are  wanted,  in  a  short  time,  the 
best  method  is  to  sink  a  six-inch  (or  larger)  pot  in 
the  ground  and  layer  the  shoot  in  it.  This  is  best 
done  by  first  making  a  hole  in  the  ground,  sufliciently 
large  to  receive  the  pot ;  then  by  running  the  loop 


TKOPAGiATION    OF    THE    VINE. 


177 


end  of  a  doubled  cord  through  the  hole  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  pot,  and  passing  a  stick  through  the  loop 


Fig.  45. 

or  double,  it  will  be  easy  to  tie   the   shoot  in  any 

desired  position.     The  whole  process  will  be  readily 

understood  from  an  inspection  of  Fig.  46 ;  and  we 

much  prefer  this  plan  to  pegging  down  the  shoot, 

or  laying  on  bricks  or  weights,  as  pegs  are  rather 

uncertain  when  used  in  pots,  and  bricks  take  up  tgo 

much  room  to  the  prejudice  of  the  roots. 

8* 


178  OFEN   AIR   GEAPE    CULTURE. 

The  young  plant  should  be  detached  from  the 
parent  vine  in  about  five  or  six  weeks  after  layering, 
and  may  then  be  set  out  in  its  proper  location.  As 
this  will  be  about  the  latter  part  of  July,  or  the  first 
of  September,  the  vine  will  have  plenty  of  time  to 
become  well  established,  and  make  good  roots  before 
winter  sets  in  ;  and  it  will  form  a  strong  plant,  capa- 
ble of  throwing  up  two  permanent  canes  or  producing 
a  specimen  bunch  of  fruit,  during  the  succeeding  sea- 
son— provided,  of  course,  that  the  variety  propagated 
is  of  a  vigorous  and  prolific  character.  An  Isabella 
vine,  layered  in  this  manner  in  an  eight-inch  pot, 
threw  up,  next  season,  two  canes,  one  twelve  and  the 
other  sixteen  feet.  Another,  treated  in  the  same 
way ,  bore  sixteen  bunches  of  fine  fruit. 

In  several  instances,  we  have  used  common  four-inch 
semi-tubular  tile,  instead  of  flowerpots,  and  with  excel- 
lent results.  They  have  the  advantage  of  cheapness  ; 
but,  in  other  respects,  the  flower-pot  is  to  be  preferred. 
In  some  cases,  the  shoot  is  drawn  through  the  hole  m 
the  bottom  of  the  pot ;  but  although  we  have  tried 
this  in  one  or  two  instances,  we  have  not  found  it 
either  convenient  or  satisfactory. 

A  bearing  shoot,  layered  in  a  good  sized  pot,  or  in 
a  common  water-j)ail,  may  be  made  to  produce  a 
well- rooted  plant,  which  will  perfectly  ripen  several 
bunches  of  fruit  the  same  season,  even  after  being 


PROPAGATION    OF   THE    VINE. 


179 


removed  from  tlie  parent  plant.  This  forms  a  very 
elegant  and  ornamental  object ;  bnt,  except  as  a  mattei 
of  curiosity,  such  a  process  is  worthless.  In  rare 
instances,  perhaps,  specimen  bunches  might  be  grown 


Fig.  46. 


out  of  doors,  and  perfected  in  the  house,  thus  avoid- 
ing numerous  evils  to  which  the  finer  varieties  of  the 
vine  are  subject  in  this  climate.  In  all  cases,  it  is 
essential  that  the  layer  be  kept  moist  and  Avarm.    As 


180  OPEN   ALR    GKAPE   CULTURE. 

the  earth  does  not  seem  to  be  warm  enough  to  induce 
the  formation  of  roots,  before  June,  it  has  occurred  to 
us  that  very  early  and  strong  plants  might  be  pro- 
duced by  inserting  the  pot  (Fig.  46)  in  a  slight  hot- 
bed. A  few  barrow  loads  of  manure  would  answer 
every  purpose ;  and  by  producing  roots  thus  early, 
strong  specimen  plants  might  be  procured  more 
easily  than  by  any  other  method. 

It  may  be  well  here  to  state  that  wood  of  any  age 
from  the  oldest  gnarled  stems  to  the  succulent  growth 
of  the  current  year  will  root  if  properly  treated. 
We  have  always  found,  however,  that  the  best  and 
healthiest  roots  always  spring  from  the  junction  of 
the  old  wood  with  the  current  year's  growth. 

It  is  recommended  upon  good  authority  (with 
which  we  in  general  coincide)  to  separate  the  plants 
from  the  old  vine  at  least  by  the  end  of  September, 
unless  previously  removed.  In  the  case  of  some 
varieties,  however  (Diana,  e.  g.)  this  will  not  always 
answer,  as  roots  are  produced  with  such  difficulty  that 
two  years  are  often  required  to  make  good  plants. 

CuTTmos. — ^Where  large  quantities  of  young  plants 
of  the  common  varieties  are  required,  this  is  one  of 
the  cheapest  and  easiest  methods  of  procuring  them. 
Where  wood  is  plenty,  each  cutting  may  consist  of 
Be\'eral  buds  or  joints,  as  in  Fig.  47.   In  ordinary  cases, 


PKOPAGATION    OF   THE   VINE.  181 

liowever,  a  length  of  three  buds  is  sufficient,  and  we 
have  grown  very  good  plants  from  cutthigs  of  only 
one  joint  in  length — tliat  is,  having  two  buds.  Indeed, 
the  latter  make  by  far  the  nicest  and  cleanest  plants, 
and  though  not  quite  so  strong  at  first  as  those  from 
a  greater  number  of  eyes,  yet  we  question  if  in  the 
long  run  they  would  not  prove  quite  their  equals. 


Fig.  47.  Fig.  48. 

Cuttings  to  be  good  should  be  of  thrifty,  wxll 
ripened,  close  jointed  wood — long  reedy  canes  and 
spindling  twigs  being  alike  to  be  avoided.  The  best 
cuttings  are  those  which  have  the  base  of  the  shoot 
attached,  and  this  may  be  either  as  in  Fig.  47,  where 
the  cutting  has  been  cut  aw^ay  close  to  the  old  wood ; 
or  it  may  be  a  mallet  cutting^  as  it  is  called,  where  a 
small  section  of  the  two-year-old  wood  is  left,  as  in 
Fig.  48. 

The  proper  time  for  procuring  cuttings  is  at  tlie 


182  OPEN    AIR    GRAPE    CULTURE. 

regular  fall  or  spring  pruning.  The  cuttings  may  then 
be  preserved  in  a  cool  cellar,  either  buried  in  mode- 
rately dry  sand  or  simply  laid  on  the  floor  and  covered 
with  straw  or  leaves.  Excessive  dryness  or  damp- 
ness are  equally  to  be  avoided,  and  the  temperature 
should  be  low  though  never  sufficient  to  freeze  the 
fluids  in  the  cutting.  In  this  state  they  should  be  kept 
until  the  middle  or  end  of  April,  as  nothing  is  gained 
by  setting  them  out  at  an  earlier  period.  Indeed, 
we  have  found  those  which  had  been  well  preser.ved 
during  the  winter  and  set  out  in  May  do  quite  as 
well  if  not  better  than  any  others.  In  some  experi- 
ments we  used  the  previous  year's  wood,  cut  from  the 
vines  when  the  young  shoots  had  grown  two  inches, 
and  yet  in  this  case  they  grew  finely  and' made  strong 
plants.  But  of  course  this  is  not  an  example  to  be 
imitated  except  where  it  is  desired  to  procure  scions 
of  some  particular  variety,  and  the  opportunity  for  so 
doing  occurs  only  at  the  period  indicated.  Such  cut- 
tings should  be  set  out  as  soon  after  being  cut  off  as 
possible,  and  if  the  weather  be  dry  and  warm,  shad- 
ing, watching  and  watering  will  all  be  necessary. 

In  planting  cuttings  it  is  best  to  choose  a  plot  of 
rather  sandy  soil  (heavy  soil  will  not  do) ;  trench  it 
deeply,  mixing  it  with  manure  tliorougKly  rotten  and 
converted  into  a  llack  mold.  (Any  decomposition 
going  on  in  the  soil  will  ruin  the  cuttings.)     Then 


PROPAGATION    OF   THE    VINE.  188 

plant  the  cuttings  in  rows  twelve  to  eighteen  inches 
apart  and  six  to  eight  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  They 
may  be  planted  either  in  holes  made  by  a  dibble  or 
laid  in  trenches  made  by  the  spade — the  earth  from 
the  next  trench  being  used  to  fill  up  the  trench  in 
which  the  cuttings  are  placed.  Some  authors  direct 
us  to  place  them  perpendicularly,  but  we  have  always 
obtained  the  best  results  when  they  were  placed  as 
shown  in  Fig  49.   In  placing  them,  always  be  careful 


Fig.  49. 

to  have  the  end  bud  which  is  out  of  the  soil  upper- 
most, and  be  careful  that  the  end  be  cut  with  a  slant, 
the  same  as  that  in  the  figure,  so  that  it  will  not  throw 
the  rain  on  to  the  bud  as  in  that  case  it  may  cause  it 
to  rot.  In  long  cuttings  the  upper  bud  should  be 
left  about  three  inches  above  the  surface  of  the  soil, 
so  that  it  may  not  be  covered  by  the  coat  of  mulch, 
which  it  is  well  to  apply.  Short  cuttings  must  be 
inserted  more  deeply,  but  in  all  cases  the  bud  should 
be  uncovered  unless  in  very  late  planting.  We  are 
aware  that  many  advise  the  bud  to  be  covered,  but 
our  own   experience  has  been  uniformly  against  it. 


184 


OPEN    AIR    GKAPE    CULTUKE. 


iN'eitlier  should  several  buds  be  left  above  the  sur- 
face,  as  they  can  do  no  good  and  require  constant 
watching,  as  it  is  important  for  reasons  to  be  here- 
after detailed  that  only  one  shoot  should  be  allowed 
to  grow.  With  cuttings  of  four  or  more  buds,  a  very 
good  rule  is  to  place  the  second  bud  even  w4th  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  In  this  case  the  cutting  should 
be  turned  one-fourth  round  from  its  position  in 
Fig.  49  so  that  the  two  upper  buds  may  lie  one  on 
each  side. 

Another  mode  of  planting  cuttings  is  to  make  a 
hole  with  a  dibble,  and  after  inserting  the  cutting 
about  two-thirds  its  length,  bend  it  over  and  peg  it 
down,  as  shown  in  Fig.  50. 


Fig.  50. 


Fig.  51. 


1^'ig  51  shows  a  method  of  inserting  cuttings  which 
we  have  practised  w^ith  success.  As  it  is  well  known 
that  a  cutting  will  grow,  no  matter  which  end  is  stuck 
in  the  ground,  a  scion  is  taken  containing  at  least 
three  buds,  and  after  bending  it  into  a  semicircular 


PROPAGATION  'of   THE   VINE.  185 

form,  both  ends  are  inserted  in  the  ground,  leaving 
the  middle  bnd  above  the  surface.  As  soon  as  this 
bud  begins  to  grow,  it  will  be  supplied  with  nutri- 
ment from  both  ends  and  will  make  rapid  progress. 
The  plants  produced  by  this  method  are  very  strong 
and  if  designed  to  remain  where  they  are  first  set 
out  they  give  very  certain  and  satisfactory  results. 
But  they  do  not  transplant  well. 

The  following  plan  described  in  Miller's  "  Gar- 
deners Dictionary"  is  one  which  we  have  tried  with 
success :  "  Having  an  Iron  bar  of  an  Inch  or  more 
in  Diameter,  a  little  pointed  at  the  End,  they  there- 
with make  a  Hole  directly  down  about  three  Feet 
and  a  Half  deep  ;  then,  being  provided  with  an  Instru- 
ment they  call  a  Crucciala,  having  a  Handle  of 
"Wood  like  that  of  a  large  Auger  and  the  Body  of 
Iron  four  Feet  long  and  more  than  half  an  Inch  in 
Diameter,  at  the  End  of  which  there  is  a  J^ich  some- 
thing like  a  half  moon,  they  after  tw^isting  the  End 
of  the  Cutting,  put  it  therein,  and  force  it  down  the 
Bottom  of  the  Hole,  where  they  then  leave  it,  and 
afterward  fill  up  the  Vacancy  w^ith  fine  sifted  Earth 
or  Sand ;  observing  to  tread  the  Earth  close  to  the 
Plants,  which  otlierwise  (unless  it  be  stiff  Land)  is 
often  inclinable  to  be  Loose  and  Dry,  especially  if 
Rain  does  not  soon  follow  their  Planting ;  and  it  is 
incredible  how   many  Yines  three  Persons  can   in 


186  OPEN    AIK   GEAPE    CULTURE. 

tliis  Manner  plant  in  one  Day,  viz.,  upward  of  two 
thousand." 

In  our  own  practice  we  simply  make  a  deep  liole, 
insert  the  cutting,  fill  up  with  dry  sand  and  give  a 
liberal  supply  of  water.  By  inserting  the  cutting  as 
deeply  as  here  advised  it  is  placed  beyond  reach  of 
drought,  though  the  lower  portion  rarely  throws  out 
roots  unless  the  soil  be  very  favorable. 

Eyes. — ^Where  the  aid  of  a  hot  bed  or  propagating 
house  can  be  obtained,  eyes  afford  an  easy  and  rapid 
mode  of  multiplying  vines.  They  are  usually  cut 
about  two  inches  long,  containing  only  one  bud,  and 
are  started  in  February  or  March  in  pots  or  boxes 
filled  with  a  mixture  of  sand,  leaf-mold,  and  soil. 
The  buds  are  either  buried  half  an  inch  deep  or 
placed  even  with  the  surface  of  the  earth,  according 


Fig.  52.  Fig.  58. 

to  the  ideas  of  the  operator,  and  generally  form  strong 
plants,  which  may  be  set  out  in  the  open  ground  in 
June  or  July.     Figs.  52  and  53  illustrate  the  position 


PROPAGATION    OF   THE   VINE.  187 

of  the  cutting  in  relation  to  tlie  soil.  This  method 
of  propagating  requires  skill  and  great  care  and  is 
seldom  employed  except  by  professional  men. 

Grafting  is  seldom  employed  in  the  case  of  those 
common  varieties  which  are  easily  raised  from  cut- 
tings or  eyes.  Diana  and  Delaware  are,  however, 
sometimes  raised  by  this  method,  and  to  the  amateur 
it  is  one  of  the  most  important  processes,  as  by  this 
means  a  new  and  rare  variety  can  be  fruited  some 
years  before  a  young  plant  would  come  into  bearing. 
Loudon  gives  the  following  directions  for  performing 
the  operation : 

*' Cleft  grafting  the  vine  is  shown  in  Fig.  54,  in 
which  a  is  a.  bud  on  the  scion,  and  5,  on  the  stock, 


Fig.  54. 

both  in  the  most  favorable  position  for  success.  The 
graft  is  tied  and  clayed  in  the  usual  manner,  except- 
ing that  only  a  small  hole  is  left  in  the  clay  opposite 


188  OPEK   AIR   GRAPE   CULTURE. 

the  eye  of  the  scion,  for  its  development.  In  graft- 
ing the  vine  in  this  manner  when  the  bud  (h)  on 
the  stock  is  developed,  it  is  allowed  to  grow  for  ten 
or  fourteen  days,  after  which  it  is  cut  off,  leaving 
only  one  bud  and  one  leaf  near  its  base  to  draw  up 
sap  to  the  scion  till  it  be  fairly  united  to  the  stock. 
The  time  of  grafting  is  when  the  stock  is  about  to 
break  into  leaf,  or  when  it  has  made  shoots  with  four 
or  five  leaves.  By  this  time  the  sap  has  begun  to  flow 
freely,  so  that  there  is  no  danger  of  the  stock  suffer- 
ing from  bleeding;  though,  if  vines  are  in  good 
health  and  the  wood  thoroughly  ripened,  all  the 
bleeding  that  takes  place  does  little  injury." 

Koot-grafting  the  vine  is  also  frequently  practised. 
For  this  purpose,  saddle-grafting  is  most  suitable,  the 
scion  being  properly  secured  to  the  stock  with  waxed 
cloth  or  paper. 

Lindley,  in  the  "  Gardener's  Chronicle,"  states  that 
the  great  secret  of  success  in  grafting  the  vine  is  to 
keep  the  scion  dormant  until  the  stock  has  so  far 
developed  its  leaves  and  shoots  as  to  be  beyond  the 
reach  of  danger  from  bleeding.  His  directions  are 
as  follows  : 

"  Shorten  the  branch  or  shoot  at  the  winter  prun- 
ing, to  the  most  eligible  place  for  inserting  the  graft. 
The  graft  should  be  kept  in. sufficiently  moist  soil  till 
the  time  of  performing  the  operation,  and  for  a  week 


PROPAGATION    OF   THE    VINE.  189 

previous  in  the  same  temperature  as  that  in  which 
the  vines  to  be  operated  upon  are  growing.  When 
such  portions  of  the  latter  as  are  shortened  for  receiv- 
ing the  grafts  have  made  a  bit  of  shoot,  graft  as  you 
would  other  fruit-trees,  taking  care,  however,  to  pre- 
serve the  shoot  at  the  top  in  claying,  and  till  the  buds 
on  the  scions  have  pushed,  then  shorten  it  back. 
Inarching  may  be  performed  at  any  time  after  the 
vines  have  started,  so  far  as  not  to  bleed." 

Speedily,  however,  names  the  middle  of  March  as 
the  best  time  for  grafting  the  vine  in  the  open  air ; 
and  his  directions  are  so  lucid  that  we  offer  no  apo- 
logy for  quoting  them : 

"  In  general,  vines  should  be  grafted  about  three 
weeks  before  they  begin  to  break  into  bud. 

"Upon  small  stocks,  not  more  than  one  inch  in 
diameter,  cleft  grafting  will  be  found  the  most  pro- 
per ;  but  upon  larger  stocks,  whip  grafting  is  to  be 
preferred. 

"  In  both  methods,  much  care  should  be  taken  in 
fitting  the  scion  and  stock  together,  and  the  operation 
should  be  performed  with  great  exactness. 

"When  the  stock  and  scion  are  well  fitted 
the  graft  should  be  fastened  with  the  strands  of  bass 
matting,  and  should  then  be  covered  with  clay  in  the 
usual  way. 

"  Vines  do  not  harmonize  with  so  much  freedom  as 


190  OPEN   AIR    GKAPE   CULTtJEE. 

commoner  fruit ;  for  thongli  the  scion  will  sometimes 
begin  to  push  in  a  few  weeks,  yet  it  will  frequently 
remain  in  a  dormant  state  for  two  or  three  months ; 
and  during  this  period  it  will  be  necessary  to  strip  the 
stock  of  all  the  shoots  it  may  produce,  as  soon  as 
they  appear ;  and,  in  order  to  preserve  the  scion  in  a 
vegetative  state,  it  w^ill  be  necessary  to  keep  the  clay 
moderately  moist,  which  may  easily  be  effected  by 
wrapping  it  round  with  moistened  moss,  and  keeping 
the  moss  constantly  sprinkled  with  water. 

"  When  the  scion  has  made  shoots  five  or  six  inches 
long,  the  clay  and  bandage  should  be  carefully  taken 
off;  and  the  clay  may  be  removed  without  injuring 
the  graft,  when  it  is  in  a  moist  state. 

"  Yines  will  frequently  prove  successful  by  both  the 
above-mentioned  methods,  but  still  the  most  eligible 
way  of  all,  seems  to  me,  to  be  that  of  grafting  by 
approach.  Indeed,  I  have  seldom  known  any  plants 
miscarry,  that  have  been  grafted  in  this  way.  'Now 
in  this  case,  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  plant,  intended 
to  be  propagated,  growing  in  a  pot.  Strong  plants 
that  have  been  two  or  three  years  in  pots  are  to  be 
preferred,  but  plants  from  the  nursery  may  be  potted 
and  grafted  in  the  same  season,  if  brought  into  a  hot- 
house or  vinery  ;  for  the  great  warmth  of  either  will 
generally  cause  plants,  brought  out  of  the  open  air, 
to  push  with  vigor,  and  to  form  new  roots,  which  wUl 


PROPAGATION   OF   THE   VINE.  191 

support  the  plant,  and  greatly  facilitate  its  forming  a 
union  with  the  stock. 

"  I  have  constantly  had  fine  grapes,  and  the  grafts 
have  made  good  wood,  the  first  season,  by  every 
method  of  grafting,  but  particularly  by  the  last.  In 
which  it  is  obvious  that  the  graft  has  a  double  sup- 
port, viz. :  from  the  stock,  as  well  as  from  the  plant  in 
the  pot. 

"  In  this  method  it  will  be  necessary  to  let  the  clay 
and  bandage  remain  two  or  three  months  after  the 
graft  has  formed  a  union ;  for  if  taken  off  at  an 
earlier  period,  the  grafted  part  of  the  plant  will  be 
very  liable  to  spring  from  the  stock. 

"  The  pot  should  be  plentifully  supplied  with  water 
till  the  month  of  August,  when  the  graft  should  be 
separated  from  the  plant  in  the  pot.  Two  or  three 
inches  of  wood  below  the  bottom  of  the  graft  may  be 
left,  but  should  be  taken  clean  off  at  the  next  winter's 
23runing." 

Grafting  is  a  common  practice  in  the  vineyards  of 
France.     Chaptal's  directions  are  as  follows  : 

"Having  selected  a  healthy  stock,  it  is,  just  when 
the  sap  is  beginning  to  flow,  taken  off  with  a  clean 
cut  an  inch  or  two  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
Tlie  upper  portion  of  the  stock,  which  must  be  per- 
fectly free  from  knots,  is  split  evenly  down  the  centre 
and  pared  quite  smooth  within,  of  a  sufficient  size  for 


192 


^  OPEN   AIR    GRAPE   CULTURE. 


the  reception  of  the  scion.  The  latter  is  pruned  to  three 
ejes  in  length,  having  the  lower  part  cut  in  the  form 
of  a  wedge,  commencing  about  an  inch  beneath 
the  lowest  eye,  and  gradually  tapering  to  the  bottom. 
It  is  then  inserted  as  far  as  the  lowest  bud  into  the 
cleft  of  the  stock :  the  second  bud  is  level  with  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  which  is  drawn  close  around 
it,  and  the  ij)permost  is  quite  above  the  soil.     Great 


Fig.  65. 


care  is  necessary  in  adjusting  the  scion,  that  its  bark 
may  touch  that  of  the  stock  in  every  possible  point. 
"  The  whole  is  then  boimd  round  with  a  pliable  osier 


PEOPAGATION   OF   THE   VINE.  193 

which  retains  the  scion  in  its  proper  place.  The 
best  season  for  grafting  the  vine  is  just  when  the 
warmth  of  spring  sets  the  sap  in  motion,  and  it  should 
be  performed  when  the  sky  is  cloudy,  with  the  wind 
blowing  from  the  southeast  or  southwest.  "Whenever 
a  northerly  wind  or  great  drought  prevails,  it  is 
better  to  delay  the  operation ;  a  burning  sun  or  cold 
wind  would  arrest  the  course  of  the  sap  by  drying  up 
the  vessels  at  the  point  of  union.  l^either  is  it 
advisable  to  graft  in  rainy  weather,  because  the 
water  wdll  trickle  down  into  the  incision,  and  pre- 
vent the  union  betw^een  the  scion  and  stock.  The 
best  time  for  taking  off  the  grafts  is  in  a  dry  day 
toward  the  end  of  autumn,  when  the  sap  is  still. 
They  should  be  cut  off  with  a  portion  of  the  old  wood 
adhering,  w^hich  will  assist  in  preserving  tkem  until 
wanted  for  use.  They  should  be  plunged  two  or 
three  inches  deep  in  damp  sand,  and  kept  in  a  cool 
cellar,  where  neither  heat  nor  frost  can  penetrate. 
Twenty-four  hours  previously  to  being  used,  they 
should  be  taken  up,  and  that  part  which  had  before 
been  in  the  sand  should  be  laid  in  water." 

He,  moreover,  states  that ''  the  vine  is  thus  grafted 
with  so  much  facility,  and  the  union  between  scion 
and  stock  is  so  perfect,  that  no  plant  appears  more 
adapted  for  this  mode  of  propagation." 

We  have  never  met  with  an  exatnple  of  budding 
9 


194  OPEN    AIR    GEAPE    CULTURE. 

as  practised  on  the  grapevine.  The  following  process, 
which  is  described  as  budding  in  the  "  Gardener's 
Chronicle  "  for  1844,  is  in  reality  a  species  of  grafting  : 
' '  Bud  about  the  first  week  in  March,  or  as  soon  as 
the  sap  begins  to  rise.  Cut  an  eye  about  three  inches 
in  length,  having  attached  as  much  wood  as  you  can 
get  with  it ;  at  each  end  of  the  eye  cut  off  about  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  of  the  upper  bark,  making  the 
ends  quite  thin.  'Next  measure  off  the  exact  length 
of  the  bud  on  the  bark  of  the  vine  intended  to  be 
budded,' and  make  a  niche  slanting  upward  at  the 
upper  part ;  and  another  slanting  downward  at  the 
bottom.  Then  take  the  piece  neatly  out,  so  that  the 
bud  may  fit  nicely  in,  and  by  making  the  niche,  as 
stated  above,  each  end  of  the  bud  is  covered  by  the 
bark  of  the  shoot.  Bind  the  bud  firmly  round  with 
matting,  and  clay  it,  taking  care,  however,  that  the 
clay  does  not  cover  the  eye  of  the  bud.  Then  tie  it 
round  with  moss,  and  keep  it  constantly  damp,  and 
as  the  sap  rises  in  the  vine  the  bud  begins  to  swell. 
When  the  vine  commences  to  push  out  young  shoots, 
take  the  top  ones  off,  in  order  to  throw  a  little  more 
sap  into  the  bud,  and  as  you  perceive  it  getting 
stronger  take  off  more  young  shoots,  and  so  continue 
until  you  have  taken  off  all  the  young  shoots.  Bud- 
ding can  only  be  performed  where  the  long-rod  system 
is  practised,  as  in  that  case  you  liave  the  power  of  con- 


PROPAGATION    OF   THE   VESTE.  195 

filling  the  sap  to  the  bud,  which  will  grow  vigorously. 
As  soon  as  you  perceive  this,  cut  the  vine  down  to 
the  bud.  Budding  has  the  advantage  over  graft- 
ing of  not  leaving  an  unsightly  appearance  where  the 
bud  was  inserted.  A  bud  likewise  grows  more  luxu- 
riantly. Allow  the  matting  to  remain  until  about 
the  month  of  September." 

Mr.  Knight  was  accustamed  on  some  occasions  to 
employ  two  distinct  ligatures  to  hold  the  bud  of  his 
peach-trees  in  its  place.  One  was  placed  above 
the  bud  inserted,  and  upon  the  transverse  section 
through  the  bark ;  the  other,  which  had  no  further 
office  than  that  of  securing  the  bud,  was  employed 
in  the  usual  way.  As  soon  as  the  bud  had  attached 
itself,  the  ligature  last  applied  was  taken  off;  but  the 
other  was  suffered  to  remain.  The  passage  of  the 
sap  upward  was  in  consequence  much  obstructed, 
and  buds  inserted  in  June  began  to  vegetate  strongly 
in  July :  when  these  had  afforded  shoots  about  four 
inches  long  the  remaining  ligature  was  taken  off  to 
permit  the  excess  of  sap  to  pass  on ;  and  the  young 
shoots  were  nailed  to  the  wall.  Being  there  properly 
exposed  to  light,  their  wood  ripened  well,  and  afford- 
ed blossoms  in  the  succeeding  spring. 

Might  not  the  principles  here  indicated  be  applied 
with  advantage  to  the  foregoing  method  of  budding 
(grafting  ?)  the  vine  ? 


196 


OrEN    AIR    GKAPE    CULTURE. 


A  method  wliich  partakes  partly  of  grafting  and 
partly  of  inarching  is  shown  in  the  annexed  figure. 
Fig  56.     Here  the  graft  is  covered  with  soil  which 


^^^^^^;^ffjpw 


Fig.  56. 


supports  it  in  the  same  manner  as  a  cutting,  while  at 
the  same  time  it  receives  nutriment  from  the  stock. 


Seed  Hybridization. — Young  vines  are  never  raised 
from  seed,  except  for  the  production  of  new  varieties  ; 
but,  as  this  subject  is  deservedly  attracting  very 
general  attention  at  present,  a  few  practical  hints 
thereon  may  prove  acceptable. 

Ever  since  Bacon  observed  that  *'The  compound- 
ing and  mixture  of  plants  is  not  found  out,  which, 
nevertheless,  if  it  be  possible,  is  more  at  command 
than  that  of  living  creatures,  wherefore  it  w^ere  one 


PROPAGATION    OF   THE    VINE.  107 

of  the  most  noble  experiments  touching  plants  to 
find  this  out;  for  so  jou  may  have  a  great  variety  of 
plants  and  flowers  yet  unknown.  Grafting  doth  it 
not;  that  mendeth  the  fruit,  or  doubleth  the  flo;ver, 
but  it  hath  not  the  power  to  make  a  new  kind,"  it 
has  been  the  constant  endeavor  of  good  gardeners  to 
improve  the  qualities  of  domestic  plants  by  judicious 
mixtures  of  varieties. 

Bradley,  we  believe,  was  the  first  who  undertook 
to  produce  hybrid  plants ;  but  since  his  day,  it  has 
been  attempted  by  almost  every  celebrated  horticul- 
turist. 

The  limits  of  hybridization  amongst  plants  have 
never  been  thoroughly  ascertained,  although  it  is  a 
subject  of  deep  importance.  For  in  the  animal  king- 
dom we  know  that  while  cross  breeding  (or  intermix- 
ture of  varieties)  has  been  productive  of  the  best 
results,  hybridization,  or  muling  has  been  successful 
in  but  very  few  instances,  at  least  so  far  as  practical 
good  is  concerned.  ISTow  whether  the  cfifferent  spe- 
cies of  the  vine,  as  'oitis  mnifera^  vitis  Icibrusca^  vitis 
cordifolicis  etc.  are  so  far  removed  from  each  other 
as  to  produce  mules  by  their  intermixture,  or  whe- 
ther they  are  varieties  and  will  freely  cross-breed,  has 
not  yet  been  fully  determined. 

To  examine  this  subject,  however,  with  sufficient 
fullness  to  be  useful  would  far   exceed    our   limits. 


198  OPEN-   AIR    GRAPE    CULTURE. 

!N"either  can  we  enter  npon  a  discussion  of  the 
claims  of  tlie  rival  tlieorj  of  Yan  Mons.  We  shall 
therefore  rest  content  with  a  few  practical  directions. 

Speechlj,  who  was  probably  the  first  to  attempt 
the  improvement  of  vines  by  cross-breeding,  directs 
us  to  bring  the  flowering  branches  of  the  two  kinds 
of  vines  into  close  proximity — they  being,  of  course, 
in  the  same  stage  of  maturity. 

ISTo  very  superior  varieties  followed  his  attempts, 
however ;  and  this  is  not  to  be  w^ondered  at,  as  it  is 
probable  that  branches  might  be  entwined  a  thou- 
sand times  without  effecting  the  result  aimed  at; 
for  no  means  are  taken  to  bring  the  pollen  of  the  dif- 
ferent jlowers  into  contact  w^ith  the  stigma  of  the 
others,  and  although  we  have  no  reasons  to  doubt  the 
possibility  of  super-foetation,  (seeing  it  is  well-known 
to  occur  in  the  higher  animals)  yet  no  means  are 
here  taken  to  produce  even  this. 

J.  Fiske  Allen,  one  of  our  most  successful  grape 
growers  and*the  originator  of  some  new  and  excel- 
lent varieties,  gives  the  follow^ing  directions  upon  this 
point. 

^'  The  applying  the  pollen,  or  farina  of  one  variety 
to  the  pistil,  or  stigma  of  another,  is  the  surer  method 
of  proceeding  to  obtain  new  sorts  in  the  shortest 
time  ;  and  this  is  called  hybridizing. 

To  do  this  properly,  the  bunch  should  be  thinned 


PROPAGATION    OF   THE   VINE.  199 

of  three-quarters  of  the  buds ;  the  lower  part  should 
be  cut  away  entirely  (immediately  before  inflores- 
cence), the  strongest  buds  always  being  left. 

Observe  them  closely,  and  as  soon  as  the  flowers 
open,  with  sharp  scissors  clip  the  anthers^  being  care- 
ful not  to  injure  the  pistil ;  with  a  soft  brush,  apply 
the  pollen  from  the  kind  to  be  used  in  impregnation  ; 
or  the  whole  bunch  which  is  to  furnish  the  pollen  may 
be  cut  from  the  vine  and  gently  rubbed  or  applied  to 
the  bunch,  by  frequently  striking  them  together  on 
every  side.  This  should  be  repeated  several  days, 
until  it  is  evident  that  the  fruit  is  all  impregnated ; 
a  fresh  bunch  with  the  pollen  in  a  suitable  condition, 
must  be  had  at  each  operation. 

"  The  pollen  must  be  dry  and  in  a  falling  condition, 
to  be  fit  for  the  purpose.  If  your  vines  are  so 
situated  that  a  branch  to  be  acted  upon  can  be 
brought  into  contact  with  the  branch  of  another  kind, 
and  the  bunches  interlaced,  this  will  be  a  good 
method  of  proceeding — cutting  away  the  males  part 
of  the  blossom  from  the  kind  that  is  to  ripen  the  seed 
for  the  new  kinds." 

Fig.  5T.  Fig.  58.  Fig.  59. 

*'  Fig.  67  is  a  magnified  representation  of  the  bud 


200  OPEX    AIR    GRAPE    CULTURE. 

of  the  grape.  Figs.  58  and  59  show  the  blossom. 
The  change  from  the  hud  to  the  blossom  is  usually 
rapid,  and  takes  place  about  thirty  to  forty  days  after 
the  shoot  appears  in  the  spring  which  bears  the  fruit. 
This  bud,  which  forms  the  blossom,  consists  of  a 
covering,  or  cap,  and  the  embryo  berry  with  five 
anthers,  which,  when  the  time  for  inflorescence  has 
come,  is  raised,  or  lifted,  by  the  anthers,  and  the 
wind  blows  this  cap  free. 

"  The  third  is  the  blossom  or  embryo  grape,  with 
the  anthers  clipped  and  deprived  of  their  farina ;  on 
the  top  of  the  embryo  is  the  pistil ;  upon  this  is  to  be 
placed  the  farina,  or  pollen  of  the  male  plant ;  when 
this  is  done,  impregnation  takes  place,  and  the  em- 
bryo rapidly  swells  oif.  If  the  operation  has  not 
been  effectual,  the  berry  will  remain  as  it  is.  When 
the  grape  has  attained  one-third  or  one-half  its  size, 
it  remains  stationary  two  or  three  weeks,  and  at  this, 
time  it  is  perfecting  the  seed.  When  this  is  done, 
the  fruit  begins  growing  again  ;  thus  it  appears  the 
seed  will  vegetate,  even  if  the  fruit  does  not  ripen 
sufficiently  to  be  eatable." 

Loudon's  directions  for  saving  and  sowing  seed  are 
as  follows  :  "  Grapes  for  seed  should  be  permitted  to 
remain  on  the  plant  till  the  fruit  is  perfectly  mature, 
and  the  seeds  are  of  a  very  dark  bix)wn  color.  Tliey 
should  be  separated  from  the  pulp,  and  preserved  till 


PROPAGATION    OF   THE    VINE.  201 

February  or  the  beginning  of  March.  Thej  fchx)uld 
then  be  sown  in  pots  filled  with  light  fresh  m  >ld,  and 
plunged  iu  a  moderately  warm  hot-bed;  t}ydj  will 
come  up  in  from  four  to  six  weeks,  and  i^i-hen  the 
plants  are  about  six  inches  high,  they  »6hould  be 
transplanted  singly,  into  forty-eights,  and  afterward 
into  pots  of  a  larger  size.  Water  gently,  as  circum- 
stances require,  allow  abundance  of  light  and  air, 
and  carefully  avoid  injuring  any  of  the  leaves.  Cut 
down  the  plants  every  autumn  to  two  good  buds,  and 
suffer  only  one  of  these  to  extend  itself  in  the  fol- 
lowing spring.  Shift  into  larger  pots  as  occasion 
requires,  till  they  have  produced  fruit.  This,  under 
good  management,  will  take  place  in  the  fourth  or 
fifth  year,  when  the  approved  sorts  should  be 
selected,  and  the  rest  destroyed,  or  used  as  stocks  on 
which  to  graft  or  inarch  good  sorts." 


9* 


202  OPEN   AIR   GRAPE   CULTURE. 

CHAPTER    XL 

MANURE. 

Manure*  maj  be  defined  to  be  anything  added  to 
the  soil  to  increase  its  fertility,  whether  by  mechani- 
cal or  chemical  action.  Substances  serving  the  first 
purpose  have  been  alluded  to  nnder  the  head  of  soils. 
The  latter  will  now  occupy  our  attention. 

In  a  former  chapter  sufiacient  practical  directions 
were  given  for  the  preparatory  enrichment  of  the  soil 
and  for  the  annual  top-dressing  of  the  borders  ;  it  will 
now  be  our  object  to  consider  in  detail  the  character 
of  the  nutriment  required  by  the  vine ;  the  sources 
whence  it  may  be  derived  ;  the  various  modes  of  its 
application  ;  and  its  efi:ects  upon  the  plant. 

It  is  a  well-established  fact,  that  unless  the  soil  in 
which  any  plant  is  placed  contains  all  the  elements 
necessary  to  the  formation  of  such  plant,  no  healthy 
growth  can  ensue.  Hence  our  first  step  must  be  to 
inquire  into  the  chemical  constitution  of  the  grape- 
vine, or  at  least  of  its  ashes,  those  elements  wdiich 

*  Query. — To  what  extent  was  Jethro  Tull's  idea  of  horse-hoeing, 
as  a  substitute  for  manure,  anticipated  by  those  who  first  used  the 
word  manure  {manceuvrer — to  work  with  the  liand),  before  it  was  em- 
ployed to  express  the  addition  of  matter  to  the  soil,  with  a  view  to 
increase  its  fertility?  One  old  English  author  speaks  of  the  Com- 
monwealth of  England  as  being  "  gouornod,  administered,  and 
manured  by  three  sorts  of  persons,"'  etc. 


MANURE. 


203 


are  dissipated  during  combustion  being  abundantly 
supplied  from  tlie  atmosphere. 

Tlie  following  are  a  few  of  the  most  reliable  analy- 
ses wliicli  have  been  published : 

Dr.  Emmons  found  the  wood  of  Yitis  Lahrusca 
(Isabella  ?)  to  contain :  Water,  40.26 ;  dry  matter, 
59.74;  ash,  .98. 

Full-sized  leaves  of  Catawba,  picked  June  2d  : 
Water,  72.388;  dry  matter,  27.612;  ash,  2.138. 
Per  centage  of  ash  calculated  on  dry  matter,  T.746. 

Leaves  of  Catawba  grape  picked  June  2d.  An- 
alysis of  ash ; 


Carbonic  acid 3.050 

Silicic  ticid 29.650 

Suljihuricacid 2.062 

Pliospliates 32.950 

Lime 4.391 

Ma^rnesia 1.740 


Potassa 13.894 

Soda 9.698 

Chlorine 0.741 

Organic  acid 2.2o0 


96.925 


An  analysis  of  wood  and  bark  of  wild  vine  gave 

Wood.     Bark. 


Potassa 

Soda 

Chlorine 

Sulphuric  acid 

Phosphate  of  lime 

Phosphate  of  peroxide  of  iron, 
Carbonic  acid 


Lime , 

Magnesia 

Silex 

Soluble  silica 

Coal  and  organic  matter. 


20.84 

1.77 

2.06 

9.27 

0.02 

0.40 

0.23 

trace 

15.40 

5.04 

1.20 

5.04 

54.83 

32.22 

17.33 

39.32 

4.40 

0.80 

2.80 

14.00 

0.00 

30.00 

2.20 

1.70 

100.21  100.86 

The    following  tabulated   analyses  by    Crasso   & 
Wi^lz  explain  themselves : 


204: 


OPEN   AIE   GRAPE   CULTURE. 


Drollingen  Vines,  with 


Reisling    Tines,    with 
leaves. 


eleven     Vines,     with 
leaves. 


'  O  (M        •  I-l  T-l 


•  <y»    •  o  -"j^  <><  55  CO   I  o    o 

•CO     •  i-I  <m'  OS  T-l  o        o     <6 


I  CO  CO  CO  00        o     -^ 
1  rri  eo  K_  CO     '    o      ^ 


Small  Burgundy  Vines 
—Ash  of  Wood. 


Green  Grap-s— Ash  of 
Seed. 


Blue  Grapes — Ash    of 
Seed. 


lO  »C  -^  b- -^  tH  (M 
1-1  ■<*  O  t- O  i-i  CO 

^  CO  «o  Tji  o  o  T-i 


t-    -ooeoiftioo 

00     •  T-l  O  Tfi  CO  ■* 


■  IM  OS  O 

•  d  d  t-j 


o 

O     (M 


Green  Grapes — Ash  of 

Skin. 


Blue  Grapes — Ash    of 
Skin, 


Ripe  Green  Grapes — 
Ash  of  Juice. 


Ripe    Blue    Grapes — 
Ash  of  Juice. 


Ripe    Blue     Grapes — 
Ash  of  Juice. 


Unripe  Blue  Grapes — 
Ash  of  Juice. 


■  d  05'  »o 


O  CO  tH  ffJ  l-H 
«0  T-l  CO  O  rH 


O  00   • CS ' 


-■^  tH  O 

•  o  CO  OS 


03  (M  o  CO  o  o -* 


iooost-050ic 

00  <M  CO  01  O  T-l  CO 

T-(  T-l  CO  CO  o  o  CO 


;^  ffl  t- tH  CO  10 'i) 
O  T(H  CO  t-  Tfi  t-  »o 

10  d  CO  ^'  d  d  10 


•O  T-l  «0 

•  THoid 


tooirscooo    -ooi 


d    **. 

o    o 


\-^ 


°  ':  :1 

ca  !-i    •    :  =« 
a  0    .    .^ 

•5  -<  czJ  ^  o  ^ 

,  „  as  O.C  S-C  0  aaac,-E  « 

I  a  1"^  g'-g  s-'^  -2  ._g  o  o  o  c  .s  a 

1 3  ;s  cc  £  rx  s'5  S'  S  £  £  S  Q  cj 


MANURE.  205 

Such  being  the  normal  constituents  of  the  vine 
and  of  its  fruit,  and  the  latter  being,  in  almost  ail 
cases,  removed  from  the  soil  in  which  it  was  pro- 
duced, it  is  obvious  that  a  process  of  exhaustion  must 
be  constantly  carried  on,  which,  if  not  counteracted, 
must,  in  a  short  time,  j)erceptiblj  reduce  the  crop. 

The  means  bj  which  the  matter  thus  removed 
from  the  soil  is  restored,  are  of  three  kinds :  First, 
the  action  of  the  plants  themselves,  or  of  man  upon 
the  subsoil ;  secondly,  rain  ;  and  thirdly,  by  the  direct 
addition  of  the  requisite  elements,  through  the  agency 
of  man  and  animals. 

Although  the  soil  has,  to  a  certain  extent,  the 
power  of  separating  salts  and  gases  from  the  water 
which  passes  through  it,  the  drainage  water  still  re- 
tains a  certain  proportion  of  valuable  matter,^  and 
consequently  the  subsoil  also  becomes  saturated  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent  with  these  same  elements. 
Hence  one  of  the  effects  of  trenching  is  not  only  to 
bring  up  unexhausted  soil  to  the  surface,  but  to  return 
those  matters  which  had  previously  been  washed  out 
of  the  upper  soil  by  the  rains.  The  plants  themselves 
occasionally  bring  up  some  of  this  matter,  sending 

*  A  series  of  valuable  analyses  and  experiments  upon  this  point  ap- 
peared  lately  in  the  transactions  of  the  Highland  (Scottish)  Agricul- 
tural Society,  which  the  reader  who  desires  to  pursue  this  subject 
would  do  well  to  consult. 


206  OPEN   AIR    GRAPE   CULTURE. 

down  roots  deep  into  the  subsoil  if  it  is  open  and 
porous. 

Eain  is  another  important  source  not  only  of  am- 
monia and  gases,  but  of  mineral  matter.  We  quote  the 
following  from  Lindley's  "Theory  of  Horticulture:" 

''  The  researches  of  chemists  have  shown  that  all  rain 
water  contains  ammonia,  a  compound  of  hydrogen 
and  nitrogen,  and  thus  the  source  of  the  nitrogen 
absorbed  by  plants  was  explained.  But  it  has  also 
been  shown,  especially  by  M.  Barral,  that  other  sub- 
stances upon  which  plants  feed  are  contained  in  rain 
water  to  a  much  greater  amount  than  was  suspected. 
This  observer  was  led,  during  six  months  of  1851,  to 
examine  minutely  the  water  collected  in  the  rain 
gauges  of  the  Observatory  of  Paris.  His  mode  of 
investigation  is  declared  by  Messrs.  Dumas,  Bous- 
singault,  Gasparin,  Kegnault,  and  Arago,  names  fore- 
most in  French  science,  to  be  free  from  all  objection, 
and  to  bear  the  most  counter  trials  to  which  they 
could  expose  it.  M.  Barral  states,  that  although  the 
quantities  of  the  following  substances  varied  in  dif- 
ferent months,  yet  the  monthly  average  from  July  to 
December,  inclusive,  was  as  follows  : 

"substances  in  a  cubic  metre  of  rain  water. 

GRAMMES.        GRAINS. 

Nitrogen, 8.36  =   129. 

Nitric  Acid 19.09   =   294. 


MAJSrUKE.  207 

GRAMMES.        GRAINS. 

Ammonia, 3.61  =     55.7 

Chlorine, 2.27  =     85. 

Lime, 9.4S  =  100. 

Magnesia, 2.12  =     82.7 

"  lie  did  not  ascertain  whether  all  these  substances 
are  contained  in  rain  water  collected  at  a  distance 
from  towns.  But  Dr.  Bence  Jones  found  at  least 
nitric  acid  in  rain  water  collected  in  London,  at 
Kingston  in  Surrey,  at  Melbuiy  in  Dorsetshire,  and 
far  from  any  town  at  Clonakelty,  in  Ireland.  If  we 
assume  that  M.  Barral's  averages  represent  what 
occurs  on  an  English  acre,  the  quantity  of  such  sub- 
stances dej)osited  on  that  extent  of  ground  may  be 
safely  estimated  as  follows : 

"  The  average  depth  of  rain  which  falls  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  London  is  well  ascertained  to  be  about 
twenty -four  inches  per  annum.  This  is  at  the  rate  of 
87,120  cubic  feet,  or  2,466  cubic  metres  of  rain  water 
per  acre ;  and  this,  according  to  the  proportions  per 
cubic  metre  in  the  preceding  table,  would  afford  anu- 
ally  of — 

Nitrogen, 452^  lbs. 

Nitric  acid, 103  " 

Ammonia, 19|-  " 

Clilorine, 12^  " 

Lime, 35  " 

Magnesia.    .         .         •         .         ,         .'  11  " 

Amount  total  per  acre,  227    " 


208  OPEN    AIR   GKAPE    CULTUEE. 

"  Of  these  substances,  tlie  three  first  are  of  the 
utmost  importance,  on  account  of  their  entering  so 
largely  into  the  indispensable  constituents  of  the  food 
bj  which  vegetable  life  is  sustained.  The  quantity 
of  ammonia  thus  ascertained  to  exist,  is  about  what  i,< 
expected  in  two  hundred  weight  of  Peruvian  guano ; 
and  bountiful  nature  gives  us,  moreover,  nearly  ona 
hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of  nitrogenous  mattei' 
equally  suited  to  the  nutrition  of  our  crops." 

But  although  nature  is  thus  liberal  in  supplying  the 
necessary  wants  of  her  children,  man  desires  returns 
rather  more  extensive  than  is  merely  necessary  for 
the  good  of  the  plant.  He  therefore  adds  directly  to 
the  soil  those  matters  which  contain  proper  nutriment 
for  the  vine.  In  doing  this,  however,  it  is  not  neces 
sary  to  follow  very  accurately  any  recipe  founded  upon 
the  analysis  of  the  vine,  provided  we  obtain  sufficient 
of  those  elements  w^hich  are  most  wanted.  If  we  only 
spread  a  liberal  table,  the  vine  will  select  its  own 
food. 

Of  all  applications  to  the  soil,  none  deserve  more 
confidence  than  well  rotted  barnyard  manure ;  from 
time  immemorial  it  has  been  the  staple  reliance  of 
the  gardener  and  farmer  and  few  are  the  instances  in 
which  its  judicious  application  has  been  known  to 
fail. 

That  it  may  do  good  and  not  harm,  however,  whe% 


MANURE.  209 

mixed  with  the  soil  in  which  plants  are  growing,  it  is 
necessary  it  be  thoronglily  rotten.  However  much 
may  have  been  written  about  the  waste  incurred  by 
allowing  manure  to  decompose,  it  is  a  well  know  fact 
that  thoroughly  decomposed  manure  is  beneficial  to 
most  plants,  while  decomposing  or  fermenting  ma- 
nure is  frequently  prejudicial.  This  probably  arises 
from  the  fact  that  all  bodies  while  undergoing  decom- 
position exert  a  catalytic  action  on  any  organized 
matter  in  contact  with  them.  Thus  decomposing 
manure  directly  tends  to  produce  rot  in  the  roots  or 
other  parts  of  plants  with  which  it  comes  in  contact. 

The  proper  time  for  the  application  of  manure  to 
a  vine  border  has  been  a  subject  of  much  discussion. 
Our  plan  is  to  apply  it  as  a  top-dressing  in  the  fall 
and  fork  it  in  in  the  spring.  It  thus  serves  to  keep  the 
border  warm  and  the  soluble  portions  are  w^ashed 
down  amongst  the  roots  of  the  vine  by  the  winter 
snow  and  rain,  thus  reaching  it  in  a  most  effectual 
manner.  To  assist  this  process,  the  border  should  be 
loosened  with  a  fork  before  the  manure  is  laid  on. 

Of  all  the  substances  entering  into  the  composi- 
tion of  a  manure  heap  none  have  a  better  influence 
upon  vines  than  bones.  In  the  formation  of  a  border 
they  are  of  essential  utility,  affording  for  a  long  period 
a  constant  source  of  nutriment.  The  avidity  with 
which  the  roots  of  the  vine  seek  such  a  depot  of  food 


210  OPEN   AIR   GKAPE   CULTURE. 

may  be  easily  seen  by  placing  a  large  porous  bone 
amongst  the  roots  of  a  vine.  In  a  few  months  it  will 
be  literally  covered  with  rootlets  which  have  sought 
it  out  and  find  their  nutriment  in  its  recesses. 

Leather,  hair,  horns,  hoofs,  woollen  rags  and  other 
animal  offal  possess  a  similar  action  to  bones.  Tliey 
all  possess  the  valuable  property  of  lying  nndecom- 
posed  in  the  soil  for  long  periods,  yet  yield  readily  to 
the  disintegrating  action  of  plant  roots.  Hence, 
while  they  afford  abundant  and  valuable  nourish- 
ment to  the  vine,  it  is  not  surfeited  by  them  as  this 
nutriment  must  be  wanted  and  sought  before  it  will 
be  given  up. 

Ashes  of  wood,  whether  fresh  or  leached  are  a 
powerful  manure  for  the  vine,  and  probably  contain 
all  that  it  requires.  Leached  ashes  may  be  applied 
as  a  top  dressing  in  almost  any  quantity  with  excel- 
lent effect,  but  a  more  cautious  use  must  be  made  of 
fresh  wood  ashes,  they  being  much  more  powerful 
and  caustic.  Coal  ashes  have  hitherto  been  deemed 
utterly  worthless,  and  are  usually  thrown  into  the 
street.  To  some  soils,  however,  particularly  those 
which  are  too  heavy,  they  are  a  very  useful  addition, 
and  as  they  are  a  powerful  absorbent,  there  is  no 
doubt  that  if  mixed  with  night  soil,  or  some  similar 
matter,  they  would  prove  an  excellent  article — more 
lasting,  and  consequently  better  than  night  soil  by 


MANURE.  211 

itself.  They  should  never  be  tlirown  away,  however, 
as  they  contain  lime,  iron  and  minute,  though  appre- 
ciable quantities  of  alkalies,  soda  usually  predomi- 
nating. It  is  also  quite  possible  that  they  contain 
minute  traces  of  phosphates,  though  in  no  analysis 
with  which  I  have  met  is  it  mentioned.  "Where  the 
coal  has  been  burned  at  a  high  temperature  the 
alkali  is  in  general  reduced,  and  the  metal  volatilized. 

The  dung  and  nrine  of  animals  forms  a  powerful 
manure.  The  solid  excrements  of  all  these  are  best 
mixed  with  some  absorbent,  as  plaster,  charcoal, 
burnt  clay,  etc. ;  or  thoroughly  decomposed  in  con- 
tact wdth  vegetable  matter,  as  straw,  leaves,  etc. 
The  liquid  and  soluble  portion  may  be  used  as  liquid 
manure,  or  may  be  poured  over  the  fermenting  dung 
heap. 

The  dung  of  birds,  as  hens,  pigeons,  etc.,  and  also 
guano,  form  a  very  convenient  and  most  excellent  top 
dressing  for  vine  borders,  but  are  better  wdien  applied 
as  liquid  manure  during  the  growing  season. 

An  excellent  manure  may  be  made  as  follows: 
Sink  a  hole  in  any  convenient  part  of  the  premises 
and  fill  up  w^th  saw-dust.  On  this  pour  all  the 
urine  that  can  be  obtained  from  time  to  time,  and 
keep  closely  covered  with  a  broad  cover. 

When  sufficient  has  been  added,  or  when  the  smell 
becomes  offensive,  remove  the  cover  and  place  a  pile 


212  OPEN   ATR   GRAPE   CITLTTJEE. 

of  charcoal,  burnt  clay,  coal  ashes,  or  other  absor- 
bent on  top  of  it,  and  allow  it  to  lie  for  a  few  weeks. 
At  the  end  of  that  time,  a  mass  of  matter  will  have 
been  produced  almost  equal  to  guano. 

Koad  scrapings  form  a  good  top  dressing  for  most 
soils.  Hoare  considers  them  unrivalled  for  the  grape 
vine,  and  such  was  the  opinion  of  Speedily,  who  tells 
us:  "The  dust,  or  dirt,  from  roads,  consists  princi- 
pally of  the  following  particulars :  first,  the  soil  of 
the  vicinity ;  secondly,  the  dung  and  urine  of  horses 
and  other  animals ;  and  thirdly,  the  materials  of  the 
road  itself  when  pulverized.  Yarious  other  matters 
may  be  brought  by  winds,  and  by  other  means,  but 
the  foregoing  may  be  deemed  the  principal.  The 
first  of  the  above  articles  is  brought  to  roads  by  the 
wheels  of  carriages,  and  the  legs  of  horses  and  other 
animals ;  the  last  is  the  worst  part  of  the  materials, 
as  the  dust  and  scraj^ings  of  roads,  made  and  mended 
wijth  soft  stone  that  grinds  fast  away,  is  much  infe- 
rior in  its  vegetating  quality  to  that  which  is  collected 
from  hard  roads.  On  the  whole,  however,  this  in- 
gredient of  compost  from  the  roads  is  unquestionably 
in  general  of  a  fertile  nature,  which  may  be  attri- 
buted in  part  to  the  dung,  urine,  and  other  rich  ma- 
terials, of  which  it  is  composed,  and  in  part  to  a  kind 
of  magnetic  power,  impressed  upon  it  by  friction  and 
its  perpetual  piilverization. 


MANrRE.  213 

"Tlie  nature  of  this  road  earth  ought  to  be  dulj' 
considered,  when  used  in  the  vine  compost,  and  its 
proportion  adjusted  according  to  its  quality.  In  a 
sandy  country  it  will  naturally  abound  with  particles 
of  sand,  and  long  and  continued  rains  will,  of  course, 
wash  away  its  best  parts.  High  winds,  too,  in  dry 
weather,  will  as  certainly  deprive  it  of  its  lightest 
and  finest  parts,  especially  when  roads  lie  on  emi- 
nences, or  enjoy  an  open  exposure.  Those  materials 
from  roads  are  therefore  i:)referable,  which  are  pro- 
duced from  an  inclosed  track  in  a  low  situation 
Pavements,  however,  and  hard  roads,  produce  the 
best  sulture  of  all.  The  compost  is  much  better 
when  collected  in  a  moderate  dry  state,  than  when  it 
is  either  very  wet  or  dusty.  If  scraped  off  the  road 
in  a  wet  and  soft  state,  when  it  is  become  dry  it  will 
be  hard  and  cloddy,  and  will  require  time  to  bring  it 
to  a  proper  condition. 

"  When  thus  circumstanced,  the  best  way  of  recover- 
ing it  is  to  give  it  frequent  turnings  in  hard,  frqsty 
weather." 

Dead  animals  may  be  nsed  in  a  vine  border  if 
placed  sufficiently  far  from  the  roots  to  allow  of  their 
being  decomposed,  before  the  roots  reach  them,  as 
previously  remarked. 

Any  decaying  matter  in  a  border  is  very  detri- 
mental. 


214  OPEN    AIR    GRAPE    CULTURE. 

Charcoal  is  one  of  tlie  best  additions  to  any  soil. 
It  should  be  well  burnt,  however,  and  free  from  all 
smell  of  creosote,  as  this  substance  is  rather  prejudi- 
cial to  the  roots  of  the  grape  vine,  although  it  seems 
to  agree  with  some  plants;  (chiefly  alliaceous,  for 
which  soot  is  a  specific).  On  this  account,  when 
used  for  drainage  in  pots,  it  should  be  reburnt. 

I  am  informed  by  one  successful  grape  culturist 
that  unless  this  precaution  of  reburning  is  taken  wath 
most  charcoal,  it  is  rather  prejudicial  to  the  roots  of 
young  vines  in  pots  than  otherwise.  I  have  found, 
however,  that  if  well  sprinkled  (it  need  not  be  satu- 
rated) with  putrid  urine  and  allowed  to  lie  for  some 
time,  it  loses  its  injurious  qualities  and  retains  abund- 
ant nourishinent,  which  is  gradually  given  off  to  the 
roots  of  the  plants  as  they  require  it.  When  used  as 
a  compost  for  enriching  a  vine  border  it  had  always 
better  be  saturated  with  night  soil  or  urine.  Even 
brick  rubbish,  if  so  treated,  becomes  of  great  value. 

Most  of  these  solid  matters  are  best  added  to  the 
soil  in  the  original  formation  of  the  border.  This  is 
especially  the  case  with  the  prunings  of  the  vine, 
than  which  nothing  can  be  more  valuable.  If  added 
when  the  border  is  first  formed,  it  will  not  only  fur- 
nish nutriment  for  the  vine,  but  will  tend  to  keep  the 
soil  open  and  porous.  For  our  established  vines,  there- 
fure,  it  will  be  best  to  depend  upon  liquid  manure 


MAlSrURE.  215 

and  autumn  top  dressing  of  stable  manure,  and  all 
solid  matters  may  go  to  the  formation  of  new  vine- 
yards, of  which  we  suppose  there  will  in  general  be 
an  annual  addition.  But  where  no  new  borders  are 
being  formed,  it  w^ould  be  well  to  open  trenches 
between  the  rows  of  vines,  in  which  such  matters 
might  be  buried.  If  this  were  done  immediately 
after  the  vintage,  the  roots  would  recover  the  same 
season  from  any  wounds  they  might  receive,  and  the 
ultimate  gain  would  greatly  overbalance  any  tempo- 
rary injury.  In  doing  this,  it  will  of  course  be  best 
to  enrich  but  a  small  extent  of  border  each  year  and 
do  it  thoroughly,  so  that  it  may  afford  a  supply 
during  many  succeeding  seasons. 

Liquid  Manukj:. — Of  all  the  forms  in  which  manure 
can  be  applied,  the  liquid  manure  is  the  most  conve- 
nient and  the  most  effective.  'No  garden  or  vineyard 
should  be  without  a  tank  of  this  article,  as  its  judi- 
cious application  will  often  enable  us  to  mature  a 
fine  crop  under  very  unfavorable  circumstances,  its 
great  advantage  consisting  in  the  immediate  results 
obtained ;  though  this  very  quality,  renders  it  a 
dangerous  article  in  the  hands  of  those  who  do  not 
thoroughly  understand  its  proper  application.  To 
prepare  and  preserve  liquid  manure,  two  tanks  with 
good  covers  should  be  made  in  some  convenient  spot. 
In   smal]    gardens,   barrels,    such    as    are    used   for 


216  OPEN   AIR   GKAPE   CULTUEE. 

hydraulic  cement,  will  answer — larger  establisliments, 
of  course,  requiring  something  more  capacious.  They 
should  he  filled  with  chambe.r  and  kitchen  slops  and 
soap  suds,  the  latter  being  generally  added  warm. 
On  the  large  scale,  when  horse,  cow,  and  other  ma- 
nure can  be  obtained,  it  may  be  mixed  with  water  and 
added  to  the  contents  of  the  barrels.  Hen  manure 
is  one  of  the  most  valuable  additions.  Two  barrels 
should  be  used,  so  as  constantly  to  have  some  of  the 
manure  thoroughly  decomposed. 

After  standing  for  a  week  or  ten  days,  it  will  be  fit 
for  use,  and  may  either  be  applied  to  the  surface  of 
the  border,  or  what  is  far  better,  introduced  by  means 
of  subterranean  drains  or  channels.  These  may  con- 
sist simply  of  long  wooden  boxes,  bored  full  of  small 
holes  and  sunk  about  twelve  inches  beneath  the 
surface,  or  of  common  horse  shoe  tiles  placed  in  a 
similar  position.  Under  any  circumstances,  it  must 
have  a  tube  at  one  end  rising  up  to  the  surface, 
through  which  the  liquid  may  be  poured  and  which 
may  be  closed  on  the  approach  of  winter  so  as  to 
exclude  frost.  In  very  small  gardens,  it  may  prove 
sufficient  to  sink  one  or  two  flower  pots  in  the  border. 
These,  being  filled  with  the  liquid  manure,  it  will 
soak  down  amongst  the  roots  without  the  possibility 
of  loss  by  evaporation  from  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
The  pots  should,  of  course,  ordinarily  be  kept  covered. 


MAinjRE.  217 

Liquid  manure  is  such  a  powerful  agent,  that  there 
is  only  one  season  of  the  year  at  which  it  can  be  ap- 
plied ;  that  is  from  the  time  the  first  leaves  are  well 
developed  until  the  fruit  is  fully  formed.  During 
this  period  a  very  weak  solution  may  be  applied  in 
large  quantities  once  or  twice  a  week.  Tlie  culturist, 
however,  must  remember  that  the  solution  must  be 
weak — say  one  pailful  of  the  contents  of  the  barrels 
to  six  or  ten  pails  of  water,  according  to  the  strength 
of  the  original  liquid. 

To  prepare  extemporaneous  liquid  manure  ready 
for  application  to  the  borders  or  drains,  dissolve  two 
or  three  ounces  of  guano  in  a  gallon  of  rain  water, 
and  allow  to  stand  some  time,  stirring  occasionally. 

The  principles  which  govern  the  application  of  this 
useful  and  powerful  agent,  are  so  clearly  set  forth  by 
Dr.  Lindley,  in  the  last  edition  of  his  "  Theory  of 
Horticulture,"  that  we  cannot  do  better  than  quote 
from  him. 

"  In  order  that  the  full  effects  of  liquid  manure 
should  be  felt  without  injury,  it  is  indispensable  :  1, 
that  it  should  be  weak,  and  frequently  applied ;  2, 
that  it  should  be  perfectly  clear  ;  3,  that  it  should  be 
administered  when  plants  are  in  full  growth.  If 
strong,  it  is  apt  to  produce  great  injury,  because  of 
the  facility  with  which  it  is  absorbed,  beyond  the 
decomposing  and  assimilating  power  of  plants.  Vi 
10 


21 S  OPEN    AIR    GEAPE    CULTURE. 

turbid,  it  carries  with  it  in  suspension  a  large  quan- 
tity of  fine  sedimentary  matter,  which  fills  up  the 
interstices  of  the  soil,  or,  deposited  upon  the  roots 
themselves,  greatly  impedes  their  power  of  absorp- 
tion. If  applied  when  plants  are  torpid,  it  either 
acts  as  in  the  case  of  being  over  strong,  or  it  actually 
corrodes  the  tissues. 

"  Let  the  manure  be  extremely  weak ;  it  owes  its 
value  to  matter  that  may  be  applied  -with  consider- 
able latitude  ;  for  they  are  not  absolute  poisons,  like 
arsenic  and  corrosive  sublimate,  but  only  become 
dangerous  when  in  a  state  of  concentration.  Gas 
water  illustrates  this ;  pour  it  over  the  plant  in  the 
caustic  state  in  which  it  comes  from  the  gas-works, 
and  it  takes  off  every  leaf,  if  nothing  worse  ensues. 
Mix  it  with  half  water — still  it  burns;  double  the 
quantity  once  more — it  may  still  burn,  or  discolor 
foliage  somewhat.  But  add  a  tumbler  of  gas  water 
to  a  bucketful  of  pure  water,  no  injury  whatever 
ensues  ;  add  two  tumblers  full,  and  still  the  effect  is 
salubrious,  not  injurious.  Hence  it  appears  to  be 
immaterial  whether  the  proportion  is  the  hundredth 
or  two  hundredth  of  the  fertilizing  material. 

"  Manuring  is,  in  fact,  a  rude  operation  in  which 
considerable  latitude  is  allowable.  The  dano^er  of 
error  lies  on  the  side  of  strength,  not  of  weak- 
ness. 


MANUKE.  219 

"To  use  liquid  manure  very  weak  and  very  often  is, 
in  fact,  to  imitate  nature,  than  wlioni  we  cannot  take  a 
safer  guide.  This  is  shown  by  the  carbonate  of  am- 
monia, carried  to  plants  in  rain,  which  is  not  under- 
stood to  contain,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  more 
than  one  grain  of  ammonia  in  1  lb.  of  water ;  so  that 
in  order  to  form  a  liquid  manure  of  the  strength  of 
rain  water,  1  lb.  carbonate  of  ammonia  would  have  to 
be  diluted  with  about  7,000  lbs.  w^eight  of  water,  or  more 
than  three  tons.  Complaints  which  have  been  made 
of  guano  water  and  the -like  are  unquestionably  refer- 
able to  their  having  been  used  too  strong. 

"It  must  be  borne  in  mind:  1,  That  liquid  manure 
is  an  agent  ready  for  immediate  use,  its  main  value 
depending  upon  that  quality ;  2,  that  its  effect  is  to 
produce  exuberant  growth ;  and  3,  that  it  will  con- 
tinue to  do  so  as  long  as  the  temperature  and  light 
required  for  its  action  are  sufficient. 

"These  three  propositions,  rightly  understood,  point 
to  the  true  principles  of  applying  it;  and  if  they  are 
kept  in  view,  no  mistakes  can  well  be  made. 

"With  fruit,  the  period  of  application  should  be 
when  the  fruit,  not  the  flowers,  is  beginning  to  swell, 
l^othing  is  gained  by  influencing  the  size  or  color  of 
the  flower  of  a  fruit  tree ;  what  we  want  is  to  increase 
the  size  or  the  abundance  of  the  fruit.  If  liquid 
manure  is  applied  to  a  plant  when  the  flowers  are 


220  OPEN    AIR    GKAPE    CULTURE. 

growing',  the  vigor  wliicli  it  communicates  to  them 
must  also  be  communicated  to  the  leaves ;  but  when 
leaves  are  growing  unusually  fast,  there  is  sometimes 
a  danger  that  they  may  rob  the  branches  of  the  sap 
required  for  the  nutrition  of  the  fruit;  and  if  that 
happens,  the  latter  falls  oif.  There,  then,  is  a  source 
of  danger  which  must  not  be  lost  sight  of.  No  doubt 
the  proper  time  for  using  liquid  manure  is  when  the 
fruit  is  beginning  to  swell,  and  has  acquired,  by  its 
own  green  surface,  a  power  of  suction  capable  of 
opposing  that  of  the  leaves. 

"  At  that  time  liquid  manure  may  be  applied  freely, 
and  continued  from  time  to  time  as  long  as  the  fruit 
is  growing.  But  at  the  first  sign  of  ripening,  or  even 
earlier,  it  should  be  wholly  withheld." 

The  action  of  manure  is  even  now  very  far  from 
being  thoroughly  understood.  When  modern  chem- 
istry was  first  applied  to  agriculture,  it  was  supposed 
that  the  great  object  of  manure  was  merely  to  aflford 
food  for  plants.  But  it  was  afterward  found  that 
other  conditions  were  of  equal  importance,  and  that 
the  advantage  of  many  manures  arose  from  their  me- 
chanical influence  upon  the  soil.  At  Lois  Weedon 
in  England,  excellent  crops  of  wdieat  have  been  raised 
by  thorough  cultivation,  without  the  application  of 
manure,  and  the  same  principle  was  advocated  by 
Jethro  Toll  in  1731,  whose  famous  system  of  horse 


MANURE.  221 

lioeing  linsbaudiy  consisted  simply  in  deep  plougliing 
and  tliorougli  pulverization  of  the  soil. 

But  while  the  nieclianical  condition  of  the  soil 
exerts  a  most  important  influence  on  the  growth  of 
plants,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  unless  all  those 
elements  of  which  a  plant  is  composed,  exist  in  the 
soil,  or  are  derivable  from  other  sources,  healthy 
vegetation  is  impossible.  Tull's  farm  finally  failed  to 
yield  fair  crops,  notwithstanding  large  expenditures, 
on  the  mechanical  part  of  the  process,  and  the  same 
result  is  said,  to  have  attended  the  rigorous  applica- 
tion of  his  principles  elsewhere. 

If  the  action  of  manures  in  general,  is  but  imper- 
fectly understood,  still  less  does  its  influence  upon 
the  vine  and  its  products,  seem  to  have  been  reduced 
to  known  laws.  In  France  the  use  of  manure  has 
been  productive  of  evils  so  great  as  to  induce  the 
company  of  wine  merchants,  and  vineyard  proprie- 
tors, to  condemn  the  use  of  azotized  manures  entirely. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  vine-dressers  of  Thomery, 
who  produce  the  beautiful  Chasselas  de  Fontainebleau 
grapes,  use  rich  manures  in  liberal  quantities.  In 
general,  it  will  be  found  in  this,  as  in  other  cases, 
that  a  middle  course  is  best.  If  the  border  has  been 
purposely  prepared  in  the  first  place,  a  vigorous 
growth  will  have  been  secured,  while  it  was  necessary 
that  the  vine  should  produce  abundant  wood,  and 


222  OPEN    AIR    GKAPE    CULTURE. 

when,  after  four  or  five  years,  the  fruit  is  applied  to 
the  manufacture  of  wine,  all  rankness  of  growth  will 
have  disappeared.  If,  in  after  years,  the  vine  should 
show  symptoms  of  debility,  it  will  be  easy  to  supply 
it  with  nourishment,  by  means  of  liquid  manure ;  and 
if  ample  means  are  provided  for  keeping  the  roots 
very  dry  during  the  ripening  j^rocess,  so  that  we  can 
regulate  the  period  over  which  the  effects  of  such 
application  shall  extend,  we  are  inclined  to  believe 
that  no  evil  results  will  follow. 

]\I.  Ladrey  suggests  that  but  one  portion  of  the 
^  ineyard  be  manured  at  one  time,  and  that  the»wine 
from  the  part  so  treated  be  kept  separate  from  the 
rest,  until  the  evil  influence  of  the  manure  has  disap- 
peared. It  is  obvious,  however,  that  if  we  could 
avoid  entirely  any  loss,  of  even  a  part  of  the  vineyard, 
it  would  be  desirable. 

In  this,  however,  as  in  all  other  matters,  we  must 
keep  steadily  in  view  the  fact,  that  all  rank  vegeta- 
tion exerts  an  injurious  influence,  not  only  upon  the 
fruit  product  of  the  current  year,  but  on  the  wood 
upon  which  our  next  year's  crop  depends. 

In  his  "j^ouveau  systeme  de  la  culture  de  la  vigne," 
Persoz  attempts  to  avoid  the  evils  incident  to  the 
ordinary  mqde  of  the  application  of  manure,  by  add- 
ing to  the  soil  those  matters  which  tend  to  produce 
wood,  and  those  which  favor  the  production  of  fruit, 


MANUEE.  223 

eacli  at  tlie  appropriate  time.  His  formulae  are  as 
follows. 

Six  pounds  bone  dust;  three  pounds  leather  clip- 
pings and  other  animal  refuse ;  (blood,  horns,  hoofs, 
etc.)  and  one  pound  g3^psum,  making  in  all  ten  pounds 
to  be  added  to  each  square  yard  of  border.  This  is 
done  in  the  spring  before  the  buds  have  pushed. 

As  soon  as  the  young  shoots  are  well  advanced,  he 
manures  each  square  yard  with  eight  pounds  silicate 
of  potassa,  and  two  pounds  of  the  double  phosphate  of 
potassa  and  lime.  Silicate  of  potassa  he  procures  by 
fusing  fifteen  parts  of  quartz  sand  with  ten  of  potassa 
and  two  of  charcoal. 

The  double  phosphate  of  potassa  and  lime  is  pre- 
pared, by  adding  18  lbs.  of  sulphuric  acid  to  24  lbs. 
of  calcined  and  pulverized  bones.  This,  after  being 
well  stirred,  is  diluted  with  water,  allowed  to  stand 
for  three  days,  treated  with  hot  water  and  filtered. 
Carbonate  of  potassa  is  then  added,  until  the  liquid 
is  slightly  alkaline,  and  it  is  then  eva|)orated  in  a  cast 
iron  vessel,  roasted  at  a  red  heat,  mixed  with  the  sili- 
cate, and  the  whole  reduced  to  powder. 

A  vine  manured  by  Persoz  with  0.5  kilogr.  of  sili- 
cate of  potassa,  1.5  of  phosphate  of  lime  and  potassa, 
and  an  equal  weight  of  dried  blood  and  goose  dung, 
put  forth  in  one  year  a  shoot  11  metres  in  length,  and 
yielded  on  nine  shoots  twenty-five  bunches  of  grapes, 


224:  OPEN   AIR    GKAPE    CULTURE. 

while  a  similar  vine,  which  was  not  manured,  produced 
a  shoot  only  4.6  metres  long,  with  only  four  or  six 
blossoms,  which  faded  away  before  their  full  devel- 
opment.— ^LiEBiG  AND  Kopp :  Annual  Bepart. 


DISEASES   AND    INSECTS.  225 


CHAPTER  Xn. 


DISEASES     AND     INSECTS. 


We  confess  we  liave  had  very  little  experience  in 
the  matter  of  diseases  and  insects  affecting  the  grape 
vine.  Our  native  varieties  are  so  vigorous  and  hardy 
that  disease  rarely  affects  them,  and  during  the  grow- 
ing season  they  push  with  such  rapidity,  that  the  loss 
of  a  few  leaves  destroyed  by  insects  is  scarcely  felt. 

But  we  are  aware  that  it  is  not  always  so,  and  we 
shall  therefore  give  as  full  an  account  as  we  can 
obtain  of  the  formidable  pests  to  which  the  grape 
grower  is  exposed. 

AVhen  growing  in  the  open  air  in  a  suitable  soil, 
and  with  a  good  exposure,  the  only  two  diseases  to 
which  the  grape  vine  is  liable,  are  mildew  and 
the  rot.  The  former  appears  in  whitish  spots  on  the 
surface  of  the  leaves  and  wood,  and  when  examined 
with  a  simple  lens  of  25  inch  focus,  shows  a  net-work 
of  fungus  with  its  sporules. 

For  this,  as  well  as  for  the  red  spider,  no  remedy 
has  been  found  equal  to  sulphur,  the  use  of  which  for 
this  purpose  has  been  known  from  time  immemorial. 

]0* 


226  OPEN    AIR    GKAPE    CULTURE. 

To  apply  itj  use  may  be  made  either  of  a  common 
dredger  fixed  to  the  end  of  a  pole,  or  of  a  pair  of 
bellows  with  a  contrivance  for  admitting  a  small 
quantity  of  sulphur  into  the  stream  of  air.  Or  it 
may  be  mixed  with  water  and  the  foliage  syringed 
therew^ith.  But  the  most  efficient  method  is  that 
proposed  by  Dr.  Price,  wdio  was  the  first  to  suggest 
pentasulphide  of  calcium  for  this  purpose. 

This  compound  is  j^repared  by  boiling  30  j^arts  by 
weight  of  caustic  lime  with  80  parts  by  weight  of 
fiowers  of  sulphur,  suspended  in  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  water;  heat  is  aj)plied  until  the  solution  has  ac- 
quired a  dark  red  color  and  the  excess  of  sulphur 
ceases  to  dissolve.  The  clear  solution  is  drawn  ofi", 
and  after  being  diluted  with  20  times  its  bulk  of 
water,  may  be  applied  to  the  vines  by  means  of  a 
sj^oiige,  brush  or  syringe. 

Where  flowers  of  sulphur  is  used,  it  should  have  a 
few  drops  of  ammonia  added  before  it  is  apjjlied  to 
the  foliage,  as  the  sulphurous  acid  with  which  it  is 
saturated  (derived  from  its  combustion  during  dis- 
tillation) is  always  injurious  to  leaves  and  young 
shoots. 

The  rot  has  rarely  troubled  our  northern  vineyards, 
though  it  is  the  great  bane  of  vine  culture  in.  Ohio. 
"VYe  are  inclined  to  believe  that  if  vines  are  planted 
in  soil,  dry  or  well  drained  and  not  too  rich,  and  ho 


DISEASES    AND    INSECTS.  227 

allowed  to  extend  themselves  moderately,  but  little 
need  be  apprehended  from  the  rot. 

Dr.  Asa  Fitch  has  found  upward  of  thirty  different 
insects  whicli  prey  upon  the  grape  vine,  but  with  the 
exception  of  the  red  sj^ider,  and  occasionally  the  rose- 
bug,  they  do  not  injure  the  vine  materially. 

The  red  spider  {acarus  tella/pius)  of  which  we  give 
a  cut  (Fig.  60),  we  have  found,  not  only  under  glass, 


Fig.  60. 

but  on  vines  in  the  open  air.  It  is  a  small,  reddish- 
colored  insect  which  it  requires  a  sharp  eye  to  detect. 
For  this,  as  for  mildew,  sulphur  is  a  specific,  and  we 
are  always  safe  in  giving  our  vines  a  good  dusting  of 
this  substance,  so  as  to  prevent  any  injury  which 
might  arise  from  either  source. 

The  rose-bug  has  never  troubled  us  much.  It 
nearly  destroyed  Dr.  TJnderhill's  vineyards  at  one 
time,  however,  and  we  therefore  give  his  account  of 
the  matter  in  his  own  words. 

"  Several  years   since,  when   my   vineyards   were 


228  OPEN    Am   GRAPE   CULTURE. 

smaller  tlian  at  present,  I  found  the  rose-bug  a 
formidable  enemy.  They  appeared  on  the  vines 
when  they  were  in  blossom,  or  just  as  the  blossoms 
were  falling  off  and  the  young  grapes  forming,  and 
devoured  them  with  the  greatest  avidity.  This  feast 
continued  from  eight  to  twelve  days,  or,  until  the 
cherries  on  the  trees  in  the  vicinity  began  to  ripen, 
when  they  with  one  accord  flew  to  them,  for  a 
change  of  diet,  I  presume,  or  from  some  other  cause. 
I  was  quite  familiar  with  the  habits  of  the  caterpil- 
lar, and  had  been  in  the  practice  of  clearing  them 
from  my  orchards  in  the  spring,  before  they  had 
destroyed  scarcely  a  leaf.  This  I  did  not  consider  a 
great  or  difficult  matter,  for  they  were  enveloped  in  a 
web  early  in  the  morning,  and  one  man  in  a  few 
days  was  able  to  clear  many  hundred  trees,  by  twist- 
ing them  off,  web  and  all,  with  a  basket,  and  care- 
fully placing  them  under  his  foot.  The  rose-bug, 
however,  did  not,  like  the  caterpillar,  make  its 
appearance  in  clusters  or  webs,  but  in  small  numbers 
at  first,  and  scattered  through  the  vineyards,  increas- 
ing rapidly  every  day.  Though  taken  from  the  vines 
on  the  trellis  every  morning,  they  continued  to  mul- 
tiply till  the  eighth  or  twelfth  day,  when  they 
suddenly  left  for  the  cherry-trees,  as  before  stated. 
I  was  at  a  loss  at  first  to  know  where  they  came 
from,  till  at  length  I  discovered  the  ground  perfo 


DISEASES    AND    INSECTS.  229 

rated  with  numerous  holes,  through  which  they  made 
their  way  to  the  surface. 

"  I  observed,  when  they  first  appeared  on  the 
vines,  they  were  so  feeble  as  to  be  unable  to  fly 
even  for  a  few  yards.  Having  surmounted  all  other 
difficulties,  I  was  determined  not  to  be  defeated  in 
the  vineyard  cultivation  of  the  grape  by  this  insect, 
and  consequently  resorted  to  the  following  means  for 
their  destruction.  I  directed  my  men  to  take  each  a 
cup,  with  a  little  water  in  it,  and  go  through  the 
vineyards  every  morning,  removing  every  bug  from 
the  vines  ;  and  this  was  done  quite  rapidly  by 
passing  the  cup  under  the  leaf,  and  merely  touching 
it,  when  the  bugs  instantly  dropped,  and  were  re- 
ceived in  the  cup  containing  the  water.  When  the 
cup  was  full,  they  were  soon  destroyed  by  pressing 
the  foot  upon  them  on  a  hard  surface.  After  all  of 
them  had  been  taken  off,  on  the  following  morning 
there  were  ten  on  the  vines  where  we  had  found  but 
one  ;  and  the  succeeding  morning,  after  having  been 
removed  as  before,  there  were  one  hundred  where 
there  were  but  ten,  and  so  on.  I  was  not  discouraged, 
however,  and  directed  my  men  to  persevere  in  the 
work  of  destruction,  and  we  should  thus  perhaps 
prevent  the  formation  of  another  progeny  for  the 
next  season,  for  it  is  very  easily  shown  that  they  do 
not   migrate   to   any  great   distance ;    and   by  tluis 


230  OPKN   AIR    GKAPK    CULTURE. 

destroying  the  present  race,  I  am  convinced  tliat  we 
insure  ourselves  from  their  further  depredations  to 
an  J  injurious  extent.  When  a  person  of  some  energy 
has  cleared  them  from  his  vineyard  or  garden,  he  is 
pretty  certain  to  enjoy  the  benefit  of  his  labor  an- 
other season  as  well  as  the  present,  though  he  may 
have  a  few  from  his  less  resolute  neighbor.  Pursu- 
ing the  course  I  have  mentioned,  I  very  soon  lessened 
the  rose-bugs  so  much  that  they  gave  me  very  little 
trouble. 

"  I  also  tried  ploughing  my  vineyards  just  before 
winter  set  in,  so  as  to  expose  to  the  weather  the 
insect  in  the  larva  state,  which  will  certainly  destroy 
all  the  young  tribe  that  have  not  descended  below 
the  reach  of  the  plough.  For  two  years  past  the 
number  has  been  so  small,  that  I  have  omitted  this 
process  for  their  destruction." 


HASTENING   THE   MATURITY    OF   THE    GRAPE.         231 


CHAPTER  Xni. 

METHOD    OF    HASTENING    THE    MATURITY    OF    THE    GRAPE. 

Several  methods  have  been  proposed  for  causing 
grapes  to  ripen  at  an  earlier  period  of  the  season  than 
usual,  or  in  localities  where  they  would  not  other- 
wise ripen  at  all.  The  most  successful,  and,  on  the 
large  scale,  economical,  mode  of  eftecting  this  is  un- 
doubtedly by  means  of  glass  houses,  either  with  or 
without  fire  heat.  A  description  of  these  is  beyond 
the  limits  assigned  to  this  work,  though  we  may,  per- 
haps, be  allowed  briefly  to  describe  two  devices  of 
this  nature,  by  which  a  few  bunches  may  be  matured 
at  small  expense  and  with  very  little  trouble.  • 

"  More  than  twenty  years  ago,  a  market  gardener 
at  Bath  published  a  plan  of  ripening  grapes  under 
common  hand-glasses.  He  planted  the  vines  in  a 
soil  composed  in  great  part  of  lime  rubbish  ;  placed  a 
glass  ov,er  each  plant,  taking  out  half  a  pane  in  its 
summit  through  which  the  leading  shoot  of  the  vine 
protruded  itself,  and  grew  in  the  open  air.  The 
bunch  or  bunches  of  grapes  remained  within  the 
hand-glass,  and  enjoyed  the  advantages  oF  protection 


232 


OrPJN   AIR    GEAi'E    CULTCJRE. 


from  cold  winds,  dews,  and  rains  during  the  niglit, 
and  of  a  liigli  degree  of  confined  solar  heat  during 
tlie  day." — Loudon. 

Mr.  Maund,  editor  of  the  "Botanic  Garden,"  em- 
ploys the  following  method  of  obtaining  a  few 
bunches :  "  Although  my  experiment  is  not  yet  com- 
pleted, I  cannot  omit  mentioning  to  you  its  success. 
Grapes  grown  on  open  walls  in  the  midland  counties 
are  rarely  well-ripened  ;  therefore,  I  provided  a  small 
glazed  frame — a  sort  of  narrow  hand-glass — of  the 
slia]3e  shown  in  the  annexed  outline,  to  fix  against 
the  wall,  and  inclosed  in  it  one  branch  of 
the  vine  with  its  fruit  and  foliage.  The 
open  part,  which  rests  against  the  wall,  is 
13  inches  wide,  and  may  be  of  any  length 
required  to  take  in  the  fruit.  The  sides 
are  formed  of  single  panes  of  glass,  seven 
inches  wide,  and  meet  on  a  bar  wdiich 
may  represent  the  ridge  of  a  roof,  the  ends 
inclosed  by  triangular  boards,  and  having 
a  notch  to  admit  the  branch.  This  was 
fixed  on  the  branch  a  month  before  the  vine  came 
into  flower.  The  consequence  was,  the  protected 
branches  flowered  a  week  earlier  than  the  exposed. 
The  frame  was  not  fitted  closely  to  the  wall,  but  in 
some  places  may  have  been  a  quarter  of  an  inch  from 
it.     The  lateral  branches  being  shortened  before  it 


Fig  Gl. 


HASTENING    THE    MATURITY    OF    THK    GRAPE.         2^'6 

R-as  fixed,  it  did  not  require  removal,  even  for  prun- 
ing, because  I  adopt  the  long-rod  mode  of  training, 
whicli  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  my  partial  protection 
^^stem. 

"The  temperature  within  the  frame  is  always 
higher  than  that  without,  sometimes  at  mid-day  even 
from  20  to  30  degrees.  By  this  simple  protection,  1 
find  grapes  may  be  ripened  from  three  weeks  to  a 
month  earlier  than  when  wholly  exposed,  and  this 
saving  of  time  will,  I  believe,  not  only  secure  their 
ripening  well  every  year  in  the  midland  counties^ 
but,  also,  that  such  advantage  will  be  available  in 
the  north  of  England,  where  grapes  never  ripen  on 
the  oj^en  walls.  I  should  have  told  you  that  the 
cold  nights  of  spring  have  caused  almost  all  the 
young  fruit  to  fall  ofi"  during  the  flowering  season, 
excepting  where  it  was  protected. 

"  To  hasten  the  maturity  of  grapes  grown  in  the 
open  air,  means  may  be  taken  to  throw  them  early 
into  a  state  of  rest.  On  the  20th  of  September  prune 
the  vine  as  you  w^ould  in  the  month  of  December, 
taking  oflf  all  the  leaves  and  grajaes,  ripe  or  unripe, 
and  shortening  all  the  branches  to  one,  two  or  three 
eyes  at  most.  The  following  spring  it  will  push  its 
buds  a  few  days  before  any  of  the  neighboring  vines 
pruned  in  winter.  Train  it  as  carefully  all  the  sum- 
mer as  though  you  were  certain  it  would  ripen  its 


23J:  OPEN    AIR    GRAPE    CULTURE. 

crop  of  fruit.  Pursue  the  same  system  anTiuallj, 
pruning  the  tree  always  between  the  20th  and  30th 
of  September,  and  in  the  course  of  seven  years  you 
will  be  rewarded  for  your  patience  and  expense  witl^p 
half  a  ripe  crop  in  most  summers,  and  a  whole  ri23e 
crop  in  warm  summers." — Loudon. 

The  following  method  of  hastening  the  maturity  of 
grapes  on  open  walls,  was  communicated  to  the  Horti- 
cultural Society  of  London,  by  Mr.  Thos.  Fleetwood : 
''  Before  the  vines  are  out  of  flower,  he  brings  each 
bunch  into  a  perpendicular  position  by  a  thread  at- 
tached to  its  extremity,  and  fastened  to  a  nail  in  the 
wall,  carefully  confining  the  young  branch  w^ith  the 
bunch  thereon,  as  close  to  the  wall  as  possible.  The 
period  of  blossoming  is  preferred  for  this  operation, 
because  the  bunch  at  that  time  takes  a  proper  posi- 
tion, without  injury. 

By  this  practice  the  bunches  are  kept  so  steady 
that  the  berries  are  not  bruised  by  the  action  of  the 
wind,  and  being  fixed  close  to  the  w^all,  they  receive 
such  additional  heat,  that  they  ripen  a  month  earlier 
than  when  left  to  hang  in  the  usual  way." 

But  of  all  the  plans  which  have  been  proposed, 
perhaps  the  simplest  and  most  efficient  is  ringing, 
girdling  or  breaking.  It  has  been  employed  for 
many  years  in  France,  although  it  is  there  conceded, 
that  it  injures  the  quality  of  the  wine  produced.     Foi- 


HASTENING   THE   MATtTRITY   OF   THE    GRAPE. 


235 


table  purposes,  however,  the  grapes  seem  to  be  im- 
proved both  ill  size  and  appearance. 


Fig.  62. 

The  French  method  is  shown  in  Fig.  62.  Here 
the  annular  incision  is  made  just  below  the  fruit 
bunch  at  the  time  of  flowering.  A  pair  of  pincers 
with  a  double  pair  of  semicircular  jaws,  makes  both 
the  upper  and  lower  incision  at  once,  when  the  bark  is 
easily  removed  by  the  finger  nail. 

The  following  are  the  details  of  an  English  practi- 
tioner: 


"The  vines  are  generally  cultivated  upon  the 
Hoare  system,  or,  as  it  is  called,  the  long  rod  system; 
but  they  are  not  so  cultivated  in  every  case,  for 
sometimes  an  old  bearer  is  spurred  back  to  one  or 
two  buds,  to  carry  its  crop  another  year.  My  vines 
are  very  strong,  and  the  rods  or  branches  stand   at 


L^oo  OPEN  AIR  grapp:  culture. 

least  three  feet,  or  even  three  feet  six  inches,  distant 
from  each  other,  Avhen  winter  pruned.  This  allows 
just  sufficient  room  for  the  fruit-bearing  laterals  and 
a  young  rod  to  come  up  between  every  two  bearers. 
This  young  rod,  of  course,  to  be  the  bearer  of  laterals 
the  following  year : 

"  Thus  no  vines  cultivated  on  any  other  system  are 
so  capable  of  being  rung,  without  the  disadvantage 
of  killing  or  losing  the  future  useful  part  of  the  tree, 
because  on  Hoare's  long-rod  system,  the  whole  of 
the  previous  years,  bearers  wdll  have  to  be  cut  entirely 
away. 

"The  very  right  time  to  perform  the  ringing  is 
just  after  the  berries  are  all  set,  or  have  attained  the 
the  size  of  Ko.  2  shot,  or  small  peas.  In  ringing,  cut, 
with  a  sharp  knife,  clean  round  the  branch  between 
two  joints.  Or,  if  you  are  going  to  ring  the  laterals 
carrying  the  fruit,  leave  either  two  or  three  buds  and 
leaves  beyond  the  main  stem,  and  make  the  ring  just 
in  the  middle,  between  the  third  and  fourth  leaves, 
or  joints.  As  I  said  before,  make  two  cuts  clean 
through  the  bark,  quite  down  into  the  wood,  one  inch 
apart,  and  remove  the  bark  clean  away,  all  round 
the  branch  or  lateral.  By  this  means,  if  you  are  in 
the  habit  of  spur  pruning,  the  hinder  buds  are  left  all 
right,  to  spur  back  the  following  year.  If  you  prune 
upon  the  long-rod  system,  you  may  ring  the  rod  jn:;t 


HASTENING  THE  MATURITY  OF  THE  GRAPE.    237 

wherever  you  please —  the  whole  branch,  if  you  like — 
as  the  rung  part  will  have  to  be  cut  away  entirely 
after  the  fruit  is  gathered. 

"The  ringing  is  performed  just  the  same  on  an  old 
whole  branch  as  in  that  of  the  young  lateral  carrying 
one  or  t\vo  bunches.  I  have  repeatedly  rung  old 
branches,  that  have  been  carrying  from  twenty  to 
thirty  bunches  of  grapes,  with  the  same  good  effect; 
only  it  has  been  such  branches  that  I  have  intended 
to  cut  away  entirely  the  following  autumn :  of 
course,  thinning  out  the  berries  of  the  bunches,  and 
the  bunches  too,  if  excellence  be  aimed  at,  is  of 
the  utmost  importance.  The  process  of  thinning  this 
cannot  be  too  early  attended  to.  I  always  begin  as  soon 
as  the  fruit  is  fairly  set,  and  continue  to  remove  all 
inferior  berries,  and,  with  a  good  pair  of  scissors  and 
clean  fingers,  using  my  eyes  to  see  what  I  am  about, 
60  as  not  to  injure  the  berries  by  handling  and  maul- 
ing them. 

"  By  thus  practising  ringing,  I  have  produced  for 
the  last  twelve  or  fourteen  years,  grapes,  out  of  doors, 
that  have  puzzled  many  a  tyro  and  others  too. 

"Our  indefatigable  editors  have  both  watched  my 
progress  in  vine  culture  for  years.  My  grapes  have 
many  a  time  puzzled  the  late  Mr.  Elphinstone,  when 
he  was  gardener  to  the  late  speaker  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  now  Lord  Eversley,  althougli  I  used  to 


238  (->p:-.n  air  grape  culture. 

coin2)ete  against  liim,  with  both  mdoor  and  outdoor 
grapes,  at  our  Hampshire  horticultural  show  in  E^o- 
veniber. 

''  As  a  matter  of  course,  I  had  read  of  ringing  fruit 
trees,  etc.,  but  it  never  struck  me  to  put  the  same 
into  practice  until  about  fourteen  years  ago,  when  my 
attention  was  called  to  it  in  an  amateur  friend's  gar- 
den, Mr.  Frampton,  glass  and  paint  merchant  of  this 
city.  I  happened  to  walk  in  and  look  at  some  vines 
to  which  he  was  paying  great  attention  at  that  time. 
This  was  in  the  month  of  September,  and  here  I  first 
saw  the  ringing  process  of  the  vine.  Seeing  a  few 
bunches  of  the  Black  Hamburg  so  large  in  the  berry, 
and  all  ripe,  I  began  to  inquire  into  the  particulars, 
when  Mr.  Frampton  kindly  showed  me  where  the 
branches  were  rung,  and  that  the  ringing  was  the 
cause  of  their  being  so  very  large  and  so  early.  I 
then  wanted  to  know  whence  Mr.  Frampton  obtained 
his  information,  when  he  showed  it  to  me  in  the 
'  Penny  Cyclopaedia,'  from  the  pen  of  Professor 
Henslow." — Thos.  Weaver,  Gardener  to  the  Warden 
of  Winchester  College, 

[It  is  quite  true  that  we  have  watched  for  some 
years,  with  great  interest,  the  experiment  upon  ringing 
vines  carried  on  by  Mr.  Weaver,  and  we  can  authen- 
ticate his  statement  of  the  mode  of  ringing  and  its 


HASTENING    THE   MATUKITY    OF   THE    GKAPE. 


239 


results.  It  must  not  be  done  in  that  petty  timid 
manner  hinted  at  by  a  contemporary.  There  must  be 
a  ring  of  bark  perfectly  removed  ;  the  cuts  being 
made  boldly  down  to  the  very  young  wood,  or  albur- 
num, and  every  particle  of  bark,  inner  and  outer, 
must  be  removed  between  the  cuts.    (See  Fig.  63.) 


Pig.  63. 


This  drawmg  represents,  faithfully,  the  rung  part 
of  a  rod  at  the  close  of  autumn,  and  show^s  how  the 
removal  of  the  band  of  bark  checked  the  return  of  the 
sap,  and   how,  in  consequence,  the   rod  above   the 


2^0  OPEN    AIR    GEArE    CULTURE. 

removed  band  increased  in  size  beyond  that  portion 
of  the  rod  below  the  band. 

The  effect  upon  the  berries  was,  in  every  instance, 
to  advance  their  early  ripening  a  fortnight,  and  to 
about  double  the  size  and  weight  of  the  berries,  when 
compared  with  those  grown  on  unrung  branches  of 
the  same  vine.  Nor  was  the  color  and  bloom  of  the 
berries  diminished  ;  indeed,  so  excellent  were  they, 
that  we  have  seen  them  exhibited  deservedly  by  the 
side  of  grapes  grown  under  glass,  and  they  were  sold 
in  November,  at  Winchester,  for  half-a-crown  a 
pound. 

Hinging  the  branches  of  fruit-trees,  to  render  them 
fruitful,  was  practised  in  France,  and  recommended 
there  in  print,  about  a  century  and  a  half  since. 
There  are  various  letters  upon  the  subject  in  the 
early  volumes  of  the  "  Horticultural  Society's  Trans- 
actions," and  in  one  of  them  (vol.  1,  page  107), 
published  in  1808,  Mr.  Williams,  of  Pitmaston,  gives 
full  directions  for  ringing  the  grape  vine.  He  tells 
the  result,  in  these  words  :  "  I  invariably  found  that 
the  fruit  not  only  ripened  earlier,  but  that  the  ber- 
ries were  considerably  larger  than  usual,  and  more 
highly  flavored." — Editor  of  the  Cottage  GardenerJ] 


CAKE   OF    OLD   VINES.  241 


CHAPTER  XIY. 


CARE     OF     OLD     VINE 


There  are  scattered  through  the  country  numerous 
old  vines  of  large  growth  and  great  age,  which  have 
been  trained  upon  trellises,  through  trees,  against  the 
sides  of  houses  and  on  arbors,  without  much  skill  or 
attention.  These  well  deserve  good  culture,  and  the 
owners  would  gladly  bestow  it  if  they  knew  how. 
For  their  benefit,  a  few  hints  in  this  direction  may 
not  be  out  of  place. 

Such  vines  have  in  general  either  been  left  entirely 
to  themselves,  or  trained  wholly  on  the  long-spur 
system,  no  new  wood  except  these  spurs  being  kept 
from  last  year's  growth  to  supply  the  wants  of  next 
year,  and  the  strength  has  thus  been  thrown  to  the 
ends  of  the  stems,  leaving  them  barren  for  a  great 
distance  from  their  base. 

Yines  in  this  condition,  if  of  good  origin,  may,  by 
iudicious  management,  be  speedily  made  to  bear 
large  crops  of  excellent  fruit,  as  their  roots  are  large 
and  powerful,  and  fully  competent  to  supply  nutri- 
ment to  a  large  crop  of  grapes. 

11 


ii42  OPE^    AIK    GKAPE    CULTURE. 

If  the  stems  are  tolerably  well  supplied  with  bearing 
spurs,  it  may  be  advisable  to  take  good  care  of  such 
of  these  as  we  can  find,  and  where  there  is  a  barren 
spot,  to  train  a  young  shoot  over  it  from  the  nearest 
bearing  spur.  Upon  this  young  shoot  spurs  may  soon 
be  made,  which  wdll  bear  admirably. 

But,  in  almost  all  cases,  the  better  plan  will  be  to 
gradually  renew  the  whole  vine,  as  strong,  vigorous 
shoots,  vvlien  once  laid  in  for  main  branches  and  well 
supplied  with  bearing  spurs  or  canes,  will  last  for  a 
long  time  and  give  satisfactory  results  with  far  less 
labor  than  is  required  by  an  old  and  straggling  vine. 

This  change  had  better  be  effected  gradually,  a 
portion  of  the  old  wood  being  retained  until  the 
young  shoots  come  into  bearing,  so  that  we  need  not 
be  entirely  deprived  of  fruit  during  its  progress. 

Commence,  then,  at  the  spring  or  winter  pruning, 
and  remove  all  the  wood  that  can  be  well  spared, 
keeping  only  a  few  of  the  best  main  branches,  and 
cutting  the  spurs  on  these  very  close,  leaving  not 
more  than  one  eye  to  each. 

This  severe  pruning  will  cause  the  vine  to  throw 
up  numerous  strong  shoots,  or  suckers,  from  near  the 
loots.  Two  or  three  of  tlie  best  of  these  must  be 
selected  and  trained  to  stakes,  away  from  the  trellis 
or  arbor,  so  as  to  give  them  all  the  light  and  air  pos- 
sible ;  the  laterals  which  start  from  these  must  be 


CAKE    OF    OLD    VINES. 


243 


pinched  at  the  tliird  leaf,  and  they  should  be  stopped 
about  the  middle  or  end  of  September.  All  other 
shoots  from  the  base  of  the  vine,  as  well  as  all  useless 
or  barren  shoots  on  other  parts,  must  be  carefully  re- 
moved as  fast  as  they  appear,  so  as  to  throw  as  much 
as  possible  into  the  canes  we  had  selected. 

'Next  season,  these  canes  must  be  disbudded  and 
laid  in  as  follows  :  Having  removed  all  laterals  and 
tendrils  and  tied  them  firmly  to  the  trellis,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  64: y  commence  at  the  first  good  bud  from  the 


Fig.  64. 


base,  which  leave,  and  then  remove  all  the  buds  for  a 
space  of  from  14  to  20  inches.  Between  14  and  20 
inches  we  will  certainly  find  a   good  bud  on   the 


244  OPEN    AIK    GKAPE    CULTURE. 

upper  side  of  tlie  cane  (as  it  is  tied  to  the  trellis), 
wliicli  must  be  kept,  and  all  the  buds  on  the  next 
equal  space,  removed  in  the  same  manner.  So  pro- 
ceed until  jou  have  laid  in  ten  or  a  dozen  buds  ou 
each  cane,  when  it  should  be  cut  off.  We  will  now 
have  two  or  more  horizontal  arms,  each  of  which  will 
throw  up  from  5  to  6  vertical  canes  of  a  strength 
sufficient  to  bear  fruit  next  year,  and  the  same  num- 
ber of  short  shoots  which  will  form  spurs  for  next 
year's  bearing  canes.  But  in  order  to  make  sure  of 
this,  we  must  prune  the  old  vine  very  severely,  in- 
deed, and  if  we  could  make  up  our  minds  to  do  with- 
out fruit  for  one  year  and  cut  it  all  away,  we  would 
be  gainers  by  it  in  the  end.  But  in  any  case,  all 
fruit  must  be  removed  from  our  new  wood,  as  the 
stems  will  have  enough  to  do  to  cover  the  trellis 
without  bearing  a  crop  of  grapes. 

Next  year,  the  canes  J,  5,  5,  J,  Z>,  will  bear  a  full 
crop  of  fruit,  and  shoots  must  be  trained  up  from  the 
spurs,  a,  a,  a^  a^  <2,  «,  to  take  their  place  at  the  winter 
pruning.  The  whole  management  will  now  be  the 
same  as  that  previously  described  for  vineyards. 

If  it  be  preferred  to  train  up  the  vine  on  the  spur 
system,  the  buds  at  <^,  a^  a^  a,  a^  <2,  should  be  removed 
when  the  cane  is  disbudded  the  first  season,  and  after 
having  borne  once  on  the  long-rod  system,  the  canes 
l^  h,  h,  5,  hy  will  be  well  provided  with  shoots  by  cutting 


CAKE   OF   OLD   VINES.  2-15 

back  on  which  good  spurs  may  be  formed.  These  sj)urs 
should  be  distributed  along  the  canes  at  a  distance 
of  Itt  to  20  inches  on  each  side,  and  may  be  managed 
individually,  as  described  in  Chap.  YII. 

The  height  to  which  spur-bearing  canes  may  be 
carried  is,  perhaps,  without  limit,  if  they  are  properly 
treated  and  the  vines  have  sufficient  root  power. 
But  in  practice,  we  do  not  think  that  it  will  be  well 
to  have  them  longer  than  6  to  8  feet.  They  are  thus 
kept  within  bounds,  and  any  one  which  may  become 
barren  is  more  easily  renewed  than  if  they  are  of 
greater  length. 

Where  the  vines  are  managed  on  the  long-rod  sys- 
tem, we  would  never  have  the  canes  over  6  feet  long, 
and  if  only  4 J-  to  5  feet,  so  much  the  better. 

Thus,  if  we  desired  to  cover  a  wall  or  trellis  fifteen 
feet  high,  we  would  have  two  tiers  of  arms  carrying 
spur-bearing  canes  each  7  feet  long,  or  three  tiers 
carrying  long-rod  or  renewal  canes. 

Before  proceeding  to  renew  an  old  vine,  it  may  be 
well  to  manure  it  thoroughly,  either  by  a  good  top 
dressing  in  the  fall,  liquid  manure  during  the  grow- 
ing season,  or  by  digging  a  trench  about  six  feet  from 
the  roots  and  filling  it  with  good  compost,  bones,  etc. 

An  excellent  plan  for  feeding  an  old  vine  is  to 
make  a  basin  about  six  inches  deep  round  its  roots, 
with  boards,  against  the  outside  of  which  sufficient 


246  OPEN    AIE    GKAPE    CULTCIiK. 

heavy  soil  has  been  pLacecl  to  make  it  water-tight. 
Then,  during  the  growing  season,  let  this  basin  be 
filled  with  soap-suds  every  washing  day — mixing 
theui  with  chamber  slops,  etc.  During  the  winter,  it 
should  be  tilled  with  leaves  and  prunings,  over  which 
a  little  earth  may  be  thrown  to  keep  the  wind  from 
blowing  them  about,  and  preventing  an  unsightly 
appearance.  If  the  roots  of  the  vine  are  so  near 
the  house  as  to  be  unsiglitly  when  treated  in  this 
manner,  the  basin  might  easily  be  yjrovided  with  a 
light  board  cover  neatly  j^ainted.  It  might  be 
requisite  to  form  it  in  two  parts,  having  notches 
through  which  the  stem  of  the  vine  can  pass. 

That  a  good  manuring  will  often  cause  a  vine 
which  has  been  previously  unfruitful  to  bear  abun- 
dant crops,  is  well  known.  We  have  now  in  mind 
an  instance  of  a  vine  which  after  remaining  barren 
for  many  years  suddenly  became  qnite  fruitful  from 
chickens  making  a  roost  of  the  trellis  on  which  it 
grew. 


TO    rRlCSEIiVR    GRAPES.  247 


CHAPTER  XY. 


TO     PKESEEVE     GKAPES. 


Although  He  wlio  "  lias  made  everything  beauti- 
ful in  his  season,"  no  doubt  designed  grapes  to  be 
used  while  fresh,  yet,  though  we  cannot  preserve  the 
exquisite  flavor  of  newly-gathered  grapes,  we  may, 
nevertheless,  prolong  their  season,  if  not  in  its  full 
excellence  yet  with  sufficient  attraction  to  make  it 
w^orth  while. 

With  proper  care,  grapes  may  be  kept  until 
Christmas,  and  at  that  time  will  command  a  iwicQ 
which  would  not  be  paid  for  fresh  fruit  during  the 
height  of  the  grape  season. 

As  yet,  the  preserving  of  the  fruit  seems  to  be  but 
little  understood,  and  although  w^e  have  kept  grapes 
until  January  in  a  very  palatable  state,  and  we  have 
tasted  others  which  have  been  tolerably  preserved 
until  March,  we  must  acknowledge  that  none  of  these 
.attempts  quite  came  up  to  our  desires,  however  much 
others  might  have  praised  the  result.  The  truth  is, 
that  grapes  in  March  will  never  be  very  severely 
criticised  under  any  circumstances.  They  are  too 
much  of  a  rarity  for  that. 


248  OPEN  Am  GRAPE  CULTURE. 

Althougli  the  foreign  grapes  which  are  imported, 
packed  in  sawdust,  are  said  to  be  gathered  before 
thej  are  fully  ripe,  we  believe  that  this  plan  is  not 
suited  to  our  native  varieties.  They  should  always 
be  fully  ripe  before  they  are  gathered,  and  this  should 
be  done  on  a  clear,  dry  day  before  they  have  been 
touched  with  frost.  The  bunches  should  be  carefully 
examined,  none  but  the  first-rate  ones  selected,  and 
they  must  be  scrupulously  freed  from  all  dirt,  such  as 
leaves,  spiders'  webs,  insects,  etc.  All  decayed  or 
unripe  berries  must  be  removed  with  a  pair  of  sharp 
scissors  (merely  pulling  them  off  will  not  do) ;  and 
they  should  be  exposed  to  the  air  (but  not  the  sun) 
for  a  few  hours  before  being  packed  away.  In  one 
case  where,  after  the  grapes  were  gathered,  the 
weather  became  damp  before  they  were  put  up,  we 
know  them  to  have  been  .placed  in  a  'moderately 
warm  oven  for  rather  more  than  fi.ve  minutes,  and 
the  result  was  very  good. 

The  following  are  a  few  of  the  methods  which  have 
been  recommended : 

1st.  Procure  some  fine,  dry  sawdust  (avoiding  that 
from  resinous  or  scented  wood),  and  pack  the  grapes 
in  a  box  or  barrel,  in  layers,  being  careful  to  have 
sufficient  between  the  bunches  to  prevent  their 
touching.  Bran  is  sometimes  substituted  for  saw- 
dust. 


TO    PKESEEVE    GEAPES.  219 

2d.  Wrap  each  bunch  in  fine,  clean  dry  paper, 
and  put  awaj  in  layers  in  boxes. 

Sd.  Take  a  good  box  and  place  a  layer  of  cotton 
batting  on  the  bottom;  on  this  place  a  layer  of 
grapes,  then  a  layer  of.  batting  and  so  on,  until  the 
box  is  full,  wrapping  each  cluster  in  thin  paper. 
Some  omit  the  paper. 

4:th.  Seal  up  the  ends  of  the  stems  with  wax,  and 
suspend  them  in  a  cool,  dry  and  dark  room,  looking 
them  over  occasionally  and  removing  unsound  berries 
and  bunches. 

The  French  suspend  their  bunches  by  the  lower 
ends  to  a  little  hook  (see  Appendix).  Some  cultiva- 
tors, however,  cut  away  the  fruit-bearing  branches 
and  preserve  the  grapes  attached  to  them. 

It  has  been  advised  to  immerse  the  stems  of  the 
bunches  in  wine,  before  the  fruit  is  used ;  but  as  they 
are  always  dried  up  and  incapable  of  transmitting 
fluid,  we  have  found  it  better  to  immerse  the  whole 
bunch  in  cold  water  for  half  an  hour  or  so.  This 
restores  the  plumpness  of  the  berries  and  removes 
some  of  the  foxy  flavor  which  is  apt  to  tinge  our 
native  grapes  when  long  kept. 


250  OPEN   AIR   GKAPE   CULTUEE. 


CIIAPTEE  XYI. 

DESCRIPTIVE    LIST    OF  NATIVE  GRAPES. 
BLAND. 

Synonyms — Bland's  Madeira^  Bland s  Pale  Red 
Elands  Fox^  Blands  Virginia^  Carolina  Powel^ 
Red  Bland^  Red  Souppernong,  Where  this  grape 
will  ripen  well  it  is  valuable  on  account  of  its  fine 
flavor.  It  is,  however,  confined  to  the  most  southern 
and  favorable  localities,  of  which  we  take  cognizance 
in  this-work,  rarelj^  ripening  north  of  the  Hudson,  al- 
though Elliot  states  that,  in  1S20,  it  was  well  grown 
and  ripened  in  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  in  sandy 
soil. 

Said  to  have  originated  in  Virginia,  discovered  by 
Col.  Bland,  wdio  presented  cuttings  to  W.  Bartrem, 
the  botanist,  and  also  to  Samuel  Powel,  Esq.,  after 
w^honi  it  was  in  some  cases  named. 

Bunches  shouldered,  long,  loose.  Berries  round  or 
slightly  oblate,  medium  size,  pale  red  when  ripe, 
juicy,  sweet  sprightly  flavor,  very  little  pulp.  Foliage 
pale  green,  smooth  and  delicate. 


DESCRIPTIVE    LIST    OF    NATIVE    GRAPES.  251 

CANADIAN     CHIEF. 

This  grape  is  claimed  to  be  a  native  of  New  Jersey ; 
but  our  best  pomologists  are  of  opinion,  that  if  a 
native,  it  is  at  best  but  a  seedling,  from  some  foreign 
variety. 

The  bunches  are  large,  berries  medium,  green  or 
faint  amber,  and  the  flesh  tender. 

In  Canada  it  is  said  to  be  perfectly  hardy  and  to 
ripen  well  in  the  open  air.  Grape-growers  in  the 
United  States  have  sometimes  found  that  it  is  apt  to 
be  winter-killed,  and  that  it  mildews  badly. 

CATAWBA. 

This  is  the  great  wine  grape  of  the  South.  It  was 
first  introduced  by  Major  Adlum,  of  Georgetown, 
D.  C.,  and  has  been  subsequently  patronized  by  N. 
Longworth,  Esq.,  the  father  of  American  wine  culture. 

Bunches  medium  size,  loose,  shouldered.  Berries 
large  and  round  or  very  slightly  oval.  Skin  rather 
thick,  pale  red  in  the  shade,  deeper  red  in  the  sun, 
and  covered  with  a  lilac  bloom.  Juicy,  sweet, 
musky.  Should  be  allowed  to  hang  till  fully  ripe. 
Downing  states,  that  imtess  fully  ripe  it  is  more 
musky  than  the  Isabella.  Prince,  on  the  other  hand, 
says,  that  when  fully  ripe  it  is  quite  musky.  Our 
own  experience  leads  us  to  think  that  it  is  more 
musky  when  ripe  than  when  unripe. 


252  OPEN   AIR   GKAPE    CULTURE. 

CLINTON. 

It  is  generally  believed  that  this  grape  originated 
in  western  New  York.  It  is  extremely  hardy  and 
productive,  but  as  a  table  fruit  we  regard  it  as 
scarcely  worthy  of  cultivation.  It  is  said  to  ripen 
several  days  before  the  Isabella,  but  until  well 
touched  with  frost  it  is  uneatable.  As  a  wine  grape, 
however,  it  is  said  to  be  unequalled,  amongst  those 
grapes  which  ripen,  where  the  Catawba  fails  to  come 
to  maturity. 

Bunches  medium  or  rather  small,  shouldered,  com- 
pact. Berries  small,  round,  black,  thick  bloom, 
juicy,  acid  and  astringent. 

CONCORD. 

Though  by  no  means  a  fine  grape,  the  Concord  ia 
valuable  from  its  quality  of  ripening  ten  days  or  so 
before  the  Isabella,  and  consequently  maturing  in  a 
large  range  of  country  where  that  grape  fails.  It  is 
very  vigorous,  hardy,  and  productive.  C.  Downing 
describes  it  as  follows : 

"•  Bunch  rather  compact,  large,  shouldered.  Berries 
large,  globular,  almost  black,  thickly  covered  with 
bloom.  Skin  rather  thick,  with  more  of  the  native 
pungency  and  aroma  than  the  Isabella,  which  it  re- 
sembles, but  does  not  quite  equal  in  quality.  Flesh 
moderately  juicy,  rather  buttery,  very  sweet,  with 
'•onsiderable  toughness  anH  ncidity  in  its  pulp." 


DESCBIPTIYE    LIST   OF    NATIVE    GRAPES.  253 

The  Concord  grape  becomes  more  foxy  the  longer 
it  is  kept,  hence  two  persons,  one  of  whom  ate  the 
fruit  fresh  from  the  vine,  and  the  other  obtained  it 
only  after  it  had  been  gathered  some  time,  might 
form  very  different  ideas  as  to  its  quality. 

DELAWARE. 

This  fine  grape,  which  promises  to  stand  in  the 
front  rank  of  our  hardy  native  grapes,  is  said  to  have 
originated  in  Kew  Jersey,  whence  it  w^as  carried  to 
Ohio,  and  falling  into  the  hands  of  A.  Thompson, 
has  been  thence  distributed  pretty  widely  amongst 
fruit-growers.  Some  German  vine-dressers  have  sup- 
posed it  to  be'^the  Traminer,  while  others  have  thought 
it  the  E-esling,  but  we  believe  our  best  pomologists 
are  agreed  that  it  is  a  native.  The  following  descrip- 
tion is  by  C.  Dowming : 

"  Bunch  small,  very  compact,  and  generally  shoul- 
dered. Berries  smallish,  round  when  not  compressed. 
Skin  thin,  of  a  beautiful  bright  red  or  flesh  color, 
very  translucent,  passing  to  v/ine  color  by  long  keep- 
ing. It  is  without  hardness  or  acidity  in  its  pulp,  ex- 
ceedingly sweet  but  sprightly,  vinous,  and  aromatic, 
and  is  w^ell  characterized  by  Mr.  Prince,  as  our  high- 
est flavored  and  most  delicious  hardy  grape." 

DIANA. 

A  seedling  of  the  Catawba  raised  by  Mrs.  Diana 


25-4:  OPEN"    AIR    GRAPE    CULTURE. 

Creliore,  of  Boston,  and  named  after  lier  by  tlie  Mas- 
sachusetts Horticultural  Society.  J^ext  to  the  Isabella 
and  Catawba,  the  merits  of  this  vine  are  perhaps  the 
best  established  of  any  we  have.  It  is  a  vigorous 
grower,  a  productive  bearer,  and  extremely  hardy. 
The  bunches  are  large,  the  berries  but  slightly  less 
than  the  Cataw^ba,  and  of  about  the  same  color,  per- 
ha23s  a  shade  darker  when  ripe.  The  flavor  is  very 
superior,  and  even  before  being  fully  ripe  is  still  quite 
good,  and  is  esteemed  by  some,  as  even  then  supe- 
rior to  the  Isabella.  Another  ^excellent  quality  con- 
sists in  the  ease  with  which  the  fruit  may  be  kept 
for  winter  use. 

ELSINBOROUGH. 

A  fine  though  small  table  grape,  found  near  Elsin- 
borough,  Salem  Co.,  ]^ew  Jersey,  and  first  introduced 
by  Dr.  Hulings.  It  is  hardy  and  productive,  and 
w^orthy  of  more  general  cultivation  than  it  has  re- 
ceived. Bunches  medium,  loose,  shouldered.  Berries 
small,  round,  black  and  covered  with  a  blue  bloom. 
They  have  generally  but  two  seeds  and  are  free  from 
pulp  or  musky  taste. 

Different  authors  have  dififerent  modes  of  spelling 
the  name  of  this  grape.  Thus  it  is  called  Elsinburg, 
Elsinburgh,  etc.  We  prefer  to  spell  it  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  village  from  which  it  takes  its  name 


DESCRIPTITE    LIST    OF    XATIVE    GRAPES.  255 

KING. 

This  is  a  new  grape  which  sprung  up  accidentally 
in  a  garden  in  the  northeastern  part  of  this  city,  and 
is  supposed  to  be  a  seedlhig  of  the  Clinton,  which  it 
resembles  verj  much  both  in  habit  and  foliage;  the 
fruir,  however,  being  of  a  green  or  yellowish  hue  in- 
stead of  black.  We  first  saw  it  in  bearing,  in  the, fall 
of  1857  and  thought  so  much  of  it  as  to  procure  cut- 
tings. The  fruit  was  brought  before  the  Fruit-growers 
Society  in  1858,  and  named  by  them  in  honor  of  Wm. 
King,  by  whom  it  was  introduced.  It  appears  to  be 
as  hardy  as  the  Clinton,  and  as  the  flavor  is  much 
superior  it  cannot  fail  to  prove  a  valuable  acquisition. 

HARTFORD    PROLITIO. 

A  hardy,  vigorous  and  productive  variety  which 
originated  in  Connecticut,  and  matures  in  latitudes 
where  the  Isabella  and  Catawba  fail  to  ripen. 
Bunch  large,  shouldered,  compact.  Berry  large, 
round,  with  thick  black  skin  covered  with  bloom. 
Sweet,  juicy  and  acid,  but  with  a  good  deal  of  the 
native  perfume.  Ripens  ten  days  before  the  Isabella. 
The  berries  have  sometimes  been  found  to  fall  from 
the  bunch  as  soon  as  ripe,  leaving  a  number  of  unripe 
berries.  Lately,  however,  this  difficulty  has  been 
lessened  by  superior  cultivation. 


256  OPEN   AIR   GRAPE   CULTUEE. 


HERBEMONT. 


This  is  one  of  the  grapes  recommended  b}^  the 
A-merican  Fomological  Society,  as  promising  well. 
There  is  so  much  -discrepancy  in  the  descrijjtions  by 
various  autliors,  that  we  confess  some  doubt  as  to  the 
identity  of  the  varieties  described.  We  quote  the  fol- 
lowing from  C.  Downing :  "  This  is  the  most  rampant 
grower  of  all  our  hardy  grapes,  and  under  favorable 
circumstances  yields  a  fruit  of  surpassing  excellence, 
with  which  the  nicest  detector  of  foxiness,  thickness 
of  skin,  toughness  or  acidity  of  pulp,  can  find  no 
fault ;  nortli  of  Philadelphia,  it  needs  a  warm  expo- 
sure or  favorable  season  for  the  full  development  of 
its  excellences.  In  our  village,  under  the  care  of  a 
lady,  it  has  not  failed  for  many  years  to  give  a  most 
abundant  crop  of  perfectly  ripened  fruit,  and  without 
protection  has  not  suffered  at  all  from  winter-killing. 
A  very  old  vine  in  Baltimore,  which  had  never 
before  failed  to  produce  abundantly  since  its  first 
bearing,  had,  last  winter,  wdien  the  mercuyy  fell  to 
19^  below  zero,  all  its  young  w^ood  killed;  but  ordi- 
narily in  that  latitude  and  further  south,  it  is  an 
unfailing  bearer  and  particularly  fitted  for  those 
Bijiithern  latitudes  that  are  liable  to  injury  from  late 
frosts  in  spring  and  early  frosts  in  autumn,  as  it  flow- 
ers very  late  and  ripens  its  fruit  early.     Its  leaves  in 


DESCRIPTIVE   LIST   OF   NATIVE    GRAPES.  257 

iiutumu  are  the  last  to  yield  to  frost,  remaining  per- 
fectly green  and  vigorous  after  all  others  have 
withered  and  fallen;  consequently,  it  has  often  an 
amount  of  imripened  wood,  which  should  be  cut  off 
before  winter. 

"Bunch  very  large  and  exceedingly  compact, 
shouldered.  Berries  below  medium,  round,  dark 
blue,  or  violet,  covered  with  a  thick,  light  bloom. 
Skin  thin,  which  is  filled  with  a  sweet,  rich,  vinous 
aromatic  juice,  of  so  little  consistence  that  it  cannot 
be  called  flesh. 

"LiNoiR,  Long,  Devekeaux,  and  Thurmond. — 
Under  the  above  names,  grapes  much  resembling  in 
character  the  Herbemont,  are  grown  in  the  southern 
States,  and  we  have  hitherto  considered  them  synony- 
mous of  it ;  but  our  southern  friends  claim  that  Lenoir 
is  a  distinct  variety,  and  much  earlier  than  any  of  the 
others,  and  also  that  at  least  some  of  the  others  are 
distinct.  The  matter  is  now  under  investigation,  and 
we  must  wait  the  result  before  deciding." 

ISABELLA. 

The  popular  account  of  the  origin  of  this  vine,  is 
that  it  was  a  native  of  South  Carolina,  which  being 
brought  to  the  North  and  introduced  to  the  notice  of 
cultivators  by  Mrs.  Isabella  Gibbs,  the  wife  of  George 
Gibbs,  Esq.,  was  named  in  honor  of  that  lady.   It  has, 


258  OPEN    AIK    GRAPE    CULTURE. 

however,  been  attempted  to  throw  some  doubt  upon 
this  history — not,  perhaps,  as  to  the  fiicts  themselves, 
but  as  to  their  accounting  for  the  origin  of  the  Isa- 
bella grape — some  pomologists  claiming  that  it  is  a 
widely  distributed  and  well-known  native  species, 
while  others  assert  that  it  is  a  well-known  European 
variety. 

But  be  this  as  it  may,  it  is  certainly  one  of  our 
most  prolific  and  vigorous  varieties,  and  is  thus  far 
more  widely  cultivated  at  the  North  than  any  other 
with  which  we  are  acquainted.  Nor  is  this  preference 
misplaced,  as  it  excels  all  others  which  have  been 
fully  tested,  both  in  the  amount  and  in  the  certainty 
of  the  crops  produced.  When  quite  ripe,  the  flavor 
also  is  excellent,  and  the  pulp  almost  disappears. 
Few  realize  this  condition,  however,  as  the  fruit  is 
generally  gathered  long  before  it  is  ripe.  The  follow- 
ing description  is  by  A.  J.  Downing : 

"  Bunches  of  good  size,  five  to  seven  inches  long, 
rather  loose,  shouldered.  Berries  oval,  pretty  large. 
Skin  thick,  dark  purple,  becoming  at  last  nearly 
black,  covered  with  a  blue  bloom.  Flesh  tender, 
with  some  pulp,  which  nearly  dissolves  when  fully 
mature  ;  juicy,  sweet,  and  rich,  with  slight  musky 


DESCRIPTIVE    LIST   OF    NATIVE    GRAPES.  259 

LOGAN. 

This  is  a  new  grape  which  is  recommended  by  the 
.Imerican  Pomological  Society  ^s  promising  well.  It 
ripens  about  the  first  of  September;  is  black,  sweet 
and  good.     Bunches  and  berries  large. 

A.  Thomson,  Esq.,  of  Delaware,  Ohio,  describes  it 
as  follows  :  "  It  is  a  black  grape,  ripening  before  the 
Catawba,  and  preferred  to  the  Isabella,  and  is  believed 
to  be  a  wilding  of  Ohio  ;  hardy,  vigorous ;  wood 
short-jointed  and  compact ;  distinct  in  wood  and  foli- 
age, productive,  and  probably  the  earliest  hardy 
grape  of  fair  quality  in  cultivation,  and  will  ripen  its 
fruit  several  degrees  further  north  than  the  Isabella 
and  Catawba." 

EARLY    NORTHERN    MUSCADINE. 

With  regard  to  this  grape,  the  most  contradictory 
accounts  have  been  published.  Some  pomologists 
speak  of  it  in  high  terms,'  and  by  others  it  has  been 
as  fiercely  condemned.  A  gentleman,  in  whom  we 
have  every  confidence,  assures  us  that  wherever  he 
has  introduced  it  it  has  given  satisfaction,  and  wo 
believe  that  he  has  no  peculiar  interest  in  this  par- 
ticular variety.  Our  own  experience  is  not  sufiicient 
to  warrant  us  in  giving  a  decision,  and  we  therefore 
append  a  statement  by  Messrs  Lewis  and  Brainard, 


260  OPEN   AIR   GEAPE   CULTURE. 

agents  for  the  Shaker  Society.  We  have,  however, 
tasted  wine  made  from  this  grape,  which  gave  pro- 
mise of  much  excellence.  We  have  under  cultiva- 
vation  a  vine  procured  direct  from  New  Lebanon, 
and  expect  ere  long  to  satisfy  ourselves  in  regard  to 
its  merits. 

"  THE  EARLY  NORTHERN  MUSCADINE, 

''A  Shaker  Seedling, 

Of  which  the  accompanying  plate  is  a  fac-simile  of 
the  cluster,  ripens  15th  of  September ;  light  amber 
color,  medium  size ;  delicious  flavor,  many  say 
unsurpassed. 

"This  excellent  grape,  the  subscribers  affirm, 
ripens  nearly  a  month  earlier  than  the  Isabella  in  the 
same  latitude  ;  is  perfectly  hardy  for  the  northern 
climate  ;  a  sure  and  constant  bearer  ;  if  properly  and 
judiciously  pruned,  bears  enormously ;  not  subject 
to  mildew,  slightly  fibrous  in  pulp,  and  has  often 
been  pronounced,  by  competent  judges,  superior  in 
its  season,  to  the  Isabella  or  Catawba  in  their  season, 
either  as  a  table  or  wine  grape.  Its  characteristic  is 
peculiarly  that  of  a  summer  fruit ;  and  wine  made 
from  it,  simply  with  the  addition  of  sugar,  has  been 
often  pronounced  by  hundreds  superior  to  the  best 
Sicilian  light  wines,  which  it  somewhat  resembles  ; 


DESCRIPTIVE    LIST   OF    NATIVE    GRAPES.  261 

and  very  high  prices  have  frequently  been  offered 
and  refused  for  it,  bj  those  who  were  acquainted  with 
its  merits  from  actual  use. 

''Prof.  J.  P.  Kirtland,  M.D., of  Cleveland  Medical 
College,  a  correspondent  of  the  '  Ohio  Farmer,'  of 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  E'ov.  7,  1857,  made  the  following 
remarks  :  '  During  the  last  three  weeks,  we  have 
amused  ourselves  in  treating,  perhaps,  a  hundred  indi- 
viduals to  specimens  of  the  l^orthern  Muscadine, 
Catawba,  Diana,  Clinton,  Isabella  and  Winslow  seed- 
ling. Four  in  five  (or  four-fifths)  of  these  persons 
have  decided  the  Northern  Muscadine  to  be  the  best 
in  th^it  list.' 

"The  subscribers  affirm  that  twenty-five  years' 
trial  of  this  graj^e,  in  connection  with  about  forty 
other  kinds  of  our  best  modern,  foreign  and  domestic 
grapes,  give  the  Muscadine  a  large  superior  margin 
of  profit.  In  short,  its  merits  only  need  to  be  known 
to  be  appreciated,  however  much  it  may  have  been 
demerited  by  pomologists  entirely  unacquainted  with 
its  quality.  It  has  taken  premiums  in  several  fairs  in 
the  United  States,  and  has  never,  in  our  knowledge, 
been  condemned  by  those  who  have  raised  it  and 
tasted  it  fresh  from  the  vines,  or  when  properly  kept, 
though  it  is  not  a  long-keeping  variety  ;  but  in  this 
respect,  is  like  all  our  choicest  summer  fruits. 

"  The  best  recommendation  for  this  grape  is,  that 


262  OPEN    AIR    GKAPE    CULTUEE. 

all  who  have  ever  raised  the  genuine  Northern  Mus- 
cadine, speak  well  of  it,  while  it  is  constantly 
sought  after  where  best  known,  in  preference  to  all 
other  varieties,  notwithstanding  some  pomologists, 
unacquainted  with  it,  have  decided  against  it  for 
reasons  best  known  to  others  than  to  the  suscribers. 

"  Multitudes  of  spurious  varieties  have  been  sold 
for  this  grape. 

"Jesse  Lewis,  & 


"T>.  C.  Brain ARD. 


Agts." 


REBECCA. 


Described  by  the  Committee  on  Native  Fruits,  of 
the  American  Pomological  Society,  as  follows : 

"  The  Hebecca  originated  in  the  garden  of  Mr. 
E.  M.  Peake,  Hudson,  N.  Y.^  about  eight  years  ago. 
Mr.  Peake's  garden  is  in  one  of  the  thickly  settled 
streets  of  the  city,  and  nearly  the  usual  size  of  a  lot, 
perhaps  one  hundred  by  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet 
deep.  Between  the  house  and  the  street  there  is  a 
small  flower  garden.  It  was  here  that  the  original 
vine  grew.  Mrs.  Peake  w^as  about  making  some 
alterations  in  her  flower-beds,  and  this  vine  being  in 
the  way,  her  gardener  advised  her  to  dig  it  up,  as  it 
was  only  an  'old  wild  grape.'  But  disliking-  to 
destroy  it,  she  removed  it  with  her  own  hands,  and 
planted  it  very  carelessly  in  tlie  garden,  back  of  tlie 


DESCRIPTIVE    LIST    OF   NATIVE    GRAPES.  263 

Louse,  in  a  very  poor  and  cold  clay  soil.  *  Here  the 
vine  made  slow  progress,  but  continued  to  increase 
in  size  until  the  third  or  fourth  year,  when  it  produced 
a  few  clusters  of  small  white  grapes.  These  appeared 
to  possess  so  much  merit,  and  were  so  much  better 
than  had  been  expected,  that  pains  were  then  taken 
to  feed  and  nourish  it,  and  prune"  it  into  shape,  and  it 
soon  well  repaid  all  the  labor  bestowed  upon  it.  It 
grew  vigorously,  making  shoots  ten  or  fifteen  feet 
long,  and  bore  abundant  crops  of  the  most  delicious 
grapes,  until  at  the  present  time  it  has  reached  the 
top  of  the  house,  and  covers  a  trellis  ten  feet  wide 
and  twenty -five  feet  high,  loaded  with  fruit. 

"  Bunches  medium  size,  about  six  inches  long,  very 
compact,  without  shoulders;  berries  medium  size, 
obovate ;  about  three  quarters  of  an  inch  in  diame- 
ter; skin  thin,  greenish  white,  becoming  of  a  pale 
amber  color  at  full  maturity,  covered  with  a  thin  white 
bloom  ;  flesh  very  juicy,  soft  and  melting,  and  free 
from  pulp  ;  flavor  rich,  sugary,  vinous,  and  brisk, 
with  a  peculiarly  musky  and  luscious  aroma,  distinct 
from  any  other  grape ;  seeds  small,  two  to  four  in 
each  berry  ;  leaves  scarcely  of  a  medium  size,  about 
seven  inches  long  and  seven  in  width,  very  deep>ly 
lobed  and  coarsely  and  sharply  serrated ;  upper  sur- 
face light  green,  slightly  rough;  under  surface 
covered  with   a  thin,  whitish  down;  nerves  promi' 


*264r  OPEN    AIR    GRAPE    CULTURE. 

nent ;  petioles  rather  slender."     (See  report  of  Sixth 
Session  of  Am.  Pom.  Soc.) 

TO    KALON. 

Some  pomologists  liave  cliaracterized  this  variety 
as  a  very  poor  bearer,  while  by  others  it  is  highly 
recommended.  At  the  sixth  session  of  the  Pomologi- 
cal  Society  it  elicited  considerable  discussion. 

C.  Downing  speaks  of  it  as  follows  :  "  This  fine 
grape  has  been  but  little  disseminated  in  consequence 
of  the  general  supposition,  that  is  was  very  much 
like,  if  not  identical  with  the  Catawba,  from  which 
it  is  entirely  distinct  in  wood,  foliage  and  every 
characteristic  of  the  fruit.  It  is  a  vigorous  grower, 
foliage  very  large,  abundant,  and  much  less  rough 
than  Catawba,  or  Isabella,  and  the  alse  of  the  leaves 
overlap  each  other  dilferently  from  any  other  with 
which  we  are  acquainted. 

"  Bunches  large  and  shouldered.  Berries  varying  in 
form  from  oval  to  oblate,  very  dark  in  color  and  pro- 
fusely covered  with  bloom.  Its  fruit  when  ripe  is 
sweet,  buttery  and  luscious,  without  foxiness  in  its 
aroma,  or  any  toughness  or  acidity  in  its  pulp.  It  is 
perfectly  hardy,  and  w^ith  good  treatment  in  deep, 
rich,  pervious  soil,  it  is  an  early  and  abundant  bearer ; 
with  indifferent  treatment  it  is  a  poor  bearer.  It 
ripens  a  little  earlier  than  the  Isabella." 


DESCRIPTIVE   LIST   OF   NATIVE    GKAPES.  265 

It  is  one  of  the  seven  varieties  recommended  by 
C.  Downing  for  general  cultivation,  but  it  is  not 
recommended  as  even  promising  well  by  the  Pomo- 
logical  Society. 

UNION  VILLAGE. 

A  fine  black  grape,  said  to  resemble  the  black 
Hamburgh  very  much.  It  is  a  vigorous  grower, 
hardy  and  productive.  A  little  earlier  than  the  Ca- 
tawba or  Isabella.  Recommended  as  promising  well 
by  the  Pomological  Society. 

NEW  VARIETIES. 

New  varieties  of  grapes  may  be  raised  by  the  me- 
thods formerly  described.  Most  of  those  so  produced 
will  of  course  prove  worthless,  being  seldom  equal  to 
the  parents.  But  occasionally  a  fine  variety  will 
reward  our  efi'orts  and  afibrd  ample  compensation  for 
a  thousand  failures.  Amongst  those  who  devote 
their  attention  to  the  raising  of  new  kinds  may  be 
mentioned,  J.  Fiske  Allen,  Esq.,  of  Salem,  Massachu- 
setts, and  Dr.  Yalk,  of  Flushing,  Long  Island.  0.  T. 
Hobbs,  Esq.,  of  Randolph,  Pa.,  also  informs  us  that 
he  intends  to  devote  his  entire  nursery  to  the  produc- 
tion of  new  kinds  of  fruits  and  fiowers,  making  the 
hardy  native  grape  a  specialty.  He  has  already 
produced  two  new  varieties  which  are  said  to  be  of 

12 


266  OPEN    AIR    GKAPE    CULTUKE. 

considerable  excellence,  viz.  the  Kitchen  grape  and 
the  North  America,  both  seedlings  from  the  Franklin 
grape,  which  is  also  a  variety  first  brought  forward 
by  Mr.  Hobbs. 

LISTS  OF  SELECT   GKAPES. 

By  the  American  Pomological  Society. — For 
general  cultivation. — Catawba,  Concord,  Delaware, 
Diana,  Isabella.  Grajyes  lahich pi'omise  well. — ^Herbe- 
mont,  Logan,  Hebecca,  Union  Yillage. 

List  by  C.  Downing. — Catawb^,  Isabella,  Diana, 
Delaware,  Rebecca,  To  Kalon,  Concord. 

Our  own  views  are  that  the  Isabella  is  the  most  re- 
liable grape  for  general  cultivation  at  the  I^orth. 
By  proper  culture,  both  the  Isabella  and  Catawba  may 
be  grown  much  further  north  than  they  are  usually 
found,  and  it  is  possible  that  amongst  our  new  varie- 
ties some  may  be  found  to  excel  there.  The  Diana  is 
now  pretty  well  established,  and  is  a  most  excellent 
variety,  and  we  would  by  all  means  encourage  a  trial 
of  the  Delaware,  which  gives  great  promise.  For  a 
garden,  we  should  choose  Isabella,  Diana,  and  Dela- 
ware with  the  Catawba  when  it  will  ripen.  It  would 
also  be  well  to  plant  a  Clinton  where  the  exposure 
is  not  sufficiently  good  to  warrant  the  planting  of 


DESCRIPTIVE   LIST   OF   iSfATIVE   GEAPES.  267 

a  better  variety.  The  Clinton  is  a  hardj  grape  which 
will  mature  where  other  kinds  will  not,  and  although 
the  fruit  is  not  eatable  in  our  estimation,  yet  it  makes 
good  wine.  The  King  grape,  however,  seems  to  be 
quite  as  hardy  as  the  Clinton  and  the  quality  pro- 
mises to  be  equal  to  many  of  the  more  celebrated 
kinds. 

Where  the  vines  we  have  named  will  not  succeed, 
we  would  plant  Concord,  JSTorthern  Muscadine  and 
Hartford  Prolific  in  preference  to  any  other  kinds, 
and  under  any  circumstances  we  confess  to  a  pen- 
chant for  variety,  as  it  is  often  found  that  the  good  and 
bad  qualities  of  any  particular  grape,  are  confined  to 
certain  localities,  so  that  by  extending  our  selection 
we  may  gain  an  experience  which  will  enable  us  to 
avoid  the  evil  and  to  obtain  the  good. 


TABULAR  DESCRIPTIVE  CATALOGUE 


NATIVE   GRAPES. 


The  following  catalogue  makea  no  pretensions  to  originality,  the  descriptiona 
given  being  in  general  those  published  by  the  originators  of  the  variety,  where  such 
descriptions  were  procurable.  The  numerous  blanks  occurring  in  the  tables  will 
show  at  a  glance  the  extreme  imperfection  of  the  descriptions  usually  published. 
Instead  of  giving  such  an  account  as  would  enable  us  to  recognize  the  variety  or  to 
appreciate  its  real  qualities,  most  so-called  descriptions  consist  merely  of  a  string 
of  eulogies.  The  reader  will  observe  that  sometimes  (for  want  of  more  definite  in- 
formation), we  have  described  the  flavor  as  "good,"  "pleasan*,"  etc.,  although 
such  a  description  is  no  description  at  all,  not  only  because  tastes  differ  so  much  as 
to  what  is  good,  but  because  there  probably  never  was  a  grape  which  was  not  thought 
by  its  originators  to  excel  everything  else.  We  give  their  statements  merelgr  for 
what  they  are  worth. 

In  many  cases  we  have  been  able  to  give  the  name  and  nothing  more.  If  by  so 
doing,  however,  we  can  lessen  in  a  slight  degree  the  further  increase  of  synonyms, 
the  space  thus  occupied  will  not  be  wasted.  There  are  certain  names  which  seem 
to  occur  to  every  one  who  has  or  thinks  he  has  a  new  variety  and  the  bantling 
Btraightway  receives  a  name  which  has  probably  served  half  a  dozen  before  it. 


270       DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE    OF    NATIVE    GRATES. 


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DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE    OF   NATIVE   GRAPES.       271 


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272       DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE    OF    NATIVE    GRAPES. 


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DESORIPTIYE    CATA.LOGUE    OF   KATIVE   GRAPES.       273 


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274      DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE   OF    NATIVE    GKAPES. 


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DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE    OF   NATIVE   GRAPES.       275 


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276      DESCEIPTIVE    CATALOGUE    OF   NATIS^E    GRAPES. 


1 

1 
1 

SO 

1 
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Resembles  Norton's 
Virginia. 

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DESCRIPTIVE    CATALOGUE   OF   NATIVE    GRAPES.     277 


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rt.2 


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2TS     DESCKIPTIVE   CATALOGUE   OF   NATIVE   GRAPES. 


REMARKS. 

is  . 

li 

g  3  a 

p 
o 

c 

a 

'£ 

Same  as  Catawba 
but  earlier. 

Probably  hybrid  be- 
tween Catawba 
and  Edinburgh. 

Hardy,  does  best  on 
light  soil. 

1 

• 

1 

o 

Em 

^       •      •   ^-      &•     E^     •        ^      ^'           "S           ^                     x 

3      •    :  1    1    1     :      §    .2         ^         3              . -. 

s 

■3                                                                               hb 

if 

1    :  ;  1  1 

3           ••33 

4> 

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1          .3               .2 

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li 

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:    :       :      ''P^ 

J.I     : 

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11 

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2  is 

3  3 
1-     Pk 

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i  I 

B    % 

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iiil  i 

^2- 

DESCRIPTIVE   CATALOGUE    OF   NATIVE   GRAPES.         279 


^'i  '.2 
3  ^ 


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c  '    o     S  ^  c  '.    o 
XT:-*-     re  •-  X  -;;  V-, 


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g  P  1.  6  ^  a  i^-  s  .•= 

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280      DESCEIPTIVE    CATALOGUE    OF   NATIVE    GRAPES. 


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THE  MANUFACTUEE  OF  WINE. 


It  is  still  a  disputed  question  wlietlier  or  not  it  is 
possible  for  good  wine  to  be  manufactured  in  the 
United  States.  Daniel  Webster,  whose  high  intel- 
lectuality did  not  detract  from  his  fondness  for  the 
pleasures  of  the  table,  declared  that  we  could  never 
hope  to  make  good  wine  on  this  continent,  and  that 
it  would  always  pay  us  better  to  raise  corn,  cotton, 
etc.,  for  export,  and  buy  our  wines  and  silks.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  following  letters  from  President 
Jefterson  to  Mr.  Adlum  would  seem  to  establish  the 
fact  that,  even  at  an  early  day,  wine  had  been  made 
in  this  country  of  more  than  ordinary  quality  : 

EXTEAOTS    OF   LETTEE&    FEOM    ME.  JEFFEESOX,  LATE    PEESIDENT    OF 
TIIE    UNITED    STATES. 

Bated  October  Ith^  1809. 

"  While  I  lived  in  "Washington*  a  member  of  Congress  from 
your  State  (I  do  not  recollect  which)  presented  me  with  two 
bottles  of  wine  made  by  you,  one  of  which,  of  Madeira  color, 
he  said  was  entirely  factitious ;  the  other,  a  dark  red  wine, 
made  from  a  wild  or  native  grape,  called  in  Maryland  a  Fox 
grape,  but  very  different  from  what  is  called  by  that  name  in 
Virginia.  This  was  a  very  Jine  wine,  and  so  exactly  resemilin^ 
the  red  Burgundy  of  Chamherlin  {one  of  the  test  crops)  that  on 
a  fair  comparison  with  that^  of  which  I  had  xery  good  on  the 


282  THE   MANUFACTURE    OF   WmE. 

same  table^  imported  ty  myself  from  the  place  where  made^  the 
company  could  not  distinguish  the  one  from  the  other.  I  think 
it  would  be  well  to  push  the  culture  of  that  grape,  without 
losing  our  time  and  efforts  in  search  of  foreign  vines,  which  it 
will  take  centuries  to  adapt  to  our  soil  and  climate." 

Dated  April  20th,  1819. 

"  The  quality  of  the  bottle  you  sent  me  before  satisfies  m*3 
that  we  have  at  length  found  one  native  grape  inured  to  all 
the  accidents  of  our  climate,  which  will  give  us  a  wine  worthy 
the  best  vineyards  of  France.  When  you  did  me  the  favor  of 
sending  me  the  former  bottle,  I  placed  it  on  the  table  with  some 
of  the  l)eet  Burgundy  of  Chamberlin,  which  I  had  imported, 
myself  from  the  maTcer  of  it,  and  desiring  the  company  to  point 
out  which  was  the  American  lottle,  it  was  acknowledged  they 
c>ould  perceive  no  difference." 

Dated  April  11,  1838. 

"  I  received  successively  two  bottles  of  wine  you  were  so 
kind  as  to  send  me;  the  first,  called  Tokay,  is  truly  a  fine  wine, 
of  high  flavor,  and  as  you  assure  me  there  was  not  a  drop  of 
brandy  or-  other  spirit  added  to  it,  I  may  say  it  is  a  wine  of  a 
good  body  of  it«  own.  The  second  bottle,  a  red  wine,  I  tried 
when  I  had  good  judges  at  the  table;  we  agreed  it  was  a  wine 
one  might  always  drinh  with  satisfaction,  but  of  no  peculiar 
excellence.  Speaking  of  brandy  being  added  to  the  wine,  he 
says  it  is  never  done  but  by  the  exporting  merchants,  and  then 
only  for  the  English  and  Arnerican  markets,  where,  by  a  viti- 
ated taste, ^the  intoxicating  quality  of  wine,  more  than  its  flavor, 
is  required  by  the  palate." 

Xow  Mr.  Jefferson  and  his  friends  were  no  doubt 
accustomed  to  drink  good  wines,  and  we  tliink  their 
opinions  valuable,  although  at  tlie  same  time  it  must 
be  confessed  that  thej  were  not  very  extraordinary 


THE   MANUFACTURE    OF   WINK.  283 

judges,  or  they  would  have  detected  a  difference 
between  the  French  and  American  wines.  Tlie 
question  of  superiority  may  sometimes  be  disputed 
even  by  good  judges,  that  of  identity  never. 

Good  wine  has  also  been  made  in  the  south  of 
England,  as  the  following  extract  from  Barry's  work 
on  wines  will  show,  and  as  it  contains  some  practical 
notes  on  wine-making,  we  give  it  entire  :  * 

"  The  vineyard  of  Painshill  is  situated  on  the  south  side  of  a 
gentle  hill ;  the  soil  a  gravelly  sand  ;  it  is  planted  entirely  with 
the  two  sorts  of  Burgundy  grapes:  the  Auvernat,  which  is  tlie 
most  delicate,  but  the  tenderest;  and  the  Miller  grape,  com- 
monly called  the  black  cluster,  which  is  more  hardy.  The  first 
year  I  attempted  to  make  red  v\  ine  in  the  usual  way,  by  tread- 
ing the  grapes,  then  letting  them  ferment  in  a  vat  till  the  hulls 
and  impurities  formed  a  thick  crust  at  the  top,  the  boiling 
ceased,  and  the  clear  wine  was  drawn  oif  from  the  bottom. 

"  This  essay  did  not  answer;  the  wine  was  so  very  harsh  and 
austere,  that  I  despaired  of  ever  making  red  wine  fit  to  drink. 
But  through  that  hardness  I  perceived  a  flavor  something  like 
some  small  French  white  wines,  which  made  me  hope  I  should 
succeed  better  with  white  wine.  That  experiment  succeeded 
far  beyond  my  most  sanguine  expectations ;  for  the  very  first 
year  I  made  white  wine,  it  nearly  resembled  the  flavor  of  cham- 
pagne, and  in  two  or  three  years  more,  as  the  vines  grew 
stronger,  to  my  great  amazement,  my  wine  had  a  better  flavor 
than  the  best  champagne  I  ever  tasted.  The  first  running  was 
as  clear  as  spirits,  the  second  running  was  c&il  de  perdrix^  and 
both  of  them  sparkled  and  creamed  in  the  glass  like  champagne. 
It  would  be  endless  to  mention  how  many  good  judges  of  wine 
were  deceived  by  my  wine,  and  thought  it  superior  to  any 
champagne  they  ever  drank ;  even  the  Duke  de  Afirepoix  pre- 
ferred it  to  any  other  wine.  But  such  is  the  prejudice  of  most 
people  against  anything  of  English  growth,  I  generally  found  it 
most  prudent  not  to  declare  where  it  grew  till  after  they  had 


284  THE   MANUFACTURE    OF   WINE. 

passed  their  verdict  on  it.  The  surest  proof  I  can  give  of  its 
excellence  is  that  I  have  sold  it  to  wine  merchants  for  fifty- 
guineas  a  hogshead ;  and  one  wine  merchant,  to  whom  1  sold 
five  hundred  pounds'  worth  at  one  time,  assured  me  he  sold 
some  of  the  best  of  it  from  7s.  Od.  to  10s.  6d.  per  bottle. 

"  After  many  years'  experience,  the  best  method  I  found  of 
making  and  managing  it  was  tliis :  I  let  the  grapes  hang  till 
they  got  all  the  maturity  the  season  would  give  them.  Then 
they  were  carefully  cut  oif  with  scissors  and  brought  home  to  the 
vine  barn  in  small  quantities,  to  prevent  their  heating  or  pressing 
one  another ;  then  they  were  all  i)icked  off  the  stalks,  and  all  the 
moldy  or  green  ones  were  discarded  before  they  were  put  upon 
the  press,  where  they  were  all  pressed  in  a  few  hours  after  they 
were  gathered;  much  would  run  from  them  before  the  press 
squeezed  them,  from  their  own  weight  one  upon  another.  This 
running  was  as  clear  as  water  and  sweet  as  syrup,  and  all  this 
of  the  first  pressing,  and  part  of  the  second,  continued  white.  The 
other  pressings  grew  reddish,  and  were  not  mixed  with  the  best. 
As  fast  as  the  wine  ran  from  the  press  into  a  large  receiver,  it 
was  put  into  hogsheads  and  closely  bunged  up.  In  a  few  hours 
one  could  hear  the  fermentation  commence,  which  would  soon 
burst  the  casks  if  not  guarded  against  by  hooping  them  strongly 
with  iron  and  securing  them  in  strong  wooden  frames  and  the 
heads  with  wedges.  In  the  height  of  the  fermentation  I  have 
frequently  seen  the  wine  oozing  through  the  pores  of  the 
staves. 

"  These  hogsheads  were  left  all  the  depth  of  winter  in  the 
cool  barn  to  reap  the  benefits  of  the  frosts.  When  the  fermen- 
tation was  over,  which  was  easily  discovered  by  the  cessation 
of  noise  and  oozing — but,  to  be  more  certain,  by  pegging  the 
cask — when  it  would  be  quite  clear,  then  it  was  racked  off  into 
clean  hogsheads  and  carried  to  the  vaults,  before  any  warmth 
of  weather  could  raise  a  second  fermentation.  In  March  the 
hogsheads  were  examined.  If  they  were  not  quite  fine,  they 
were  fined  down  with  common  fish  glue,  in  the  usual  manner; 
those  that  were  fine  of  themselves  were  not  fined  down,  and  all 
were  bottled  about  the  end  of  March,  and  in  about  six  weeks 


Till':   MANUFACTURE    OF    WINE.  285 

more  would  be  in  perfect  order  for  drinking,  and  would  be  in 
tLeir  prime  for  above  one  year ;  but  the  second  year  the  flavor 
and  sweetness  would  abate  and  would  gradually  decline,  till  at 
last  it  lost  all  flavor  and  sweetness,  and  some  that  I  kept  sixteen 
years  became  so  like  old  hock  that  it  might  pass  for  such  to  one 
who  was  not  a  perfect  connoisseur.  The  only  art  I  ever  used 
to  it  was  putting  three  pounds  of  white  sugar-candy  to  some  of 
the  hogsheads,  when  the  wine  was  first  tunned  from  the  press, 
in  order  to  couform  to  a  rage  that  prevailed  to  drink  none  but 
very  sweet  champagne. 

"I  am  convinced  that  much  "good  wine  might  be  made  in 
many  parts  of  the  south  of  England.  Many  parts  are  south  of 
Painshill,  many  soils  may  be  yet  fitter  for  it,  and  many  situa- 
tions must  be  so,  for  mine  was  much  exposed  to  southwest  winds 
(the  worst  of  all  for  vines)  and  the  declivity  was  rather  too 
steep.  Yet  with  these  disadvantages  it  succeeded  many  years. 
Indeed,  the  uncertainty  of  our  climate  is  against  it,  and  many 
fine  crops  have  been  spoiled  by  May  frosts  and  wet  summers. 
But  one  good  year  balances  many  disappointments. 

"  Captain  St.  Pierre,  who  has  established  a  great  colony  of 
vignerons  in  South  Carolina,  and  carried  there  three  years  ago 
above  three  hundred  vignerons  from  d  liferent  parts  of  Europe, 
was  with  me  several  days  before  his  departure,  was  charmed 
with  my  vineyard,  and  he  had  cultivated  vineyards  many  years 
in  France.  He  was  very  happy  at  my  giving  him  all  the  cut- 
tings of  my  vineyard,  as  he  found  it  very  difiicult  getting  the 
right  sort,  and  though  his  plantations  are  about  the  latitude  of 
33°,  he  has  not  the  least  doubt  of  having  excellent  wine  there, 
which,  if  he  has,  must  be  of  infinite  service  to  this  country." 

Still  more  recently  Mr.  Longwortli  has  succeeded 
in  the  manufacture  of  fine  champagne  wines,  which 
we  believe  are  valued  as  high  as  anv,  except  the  very 
finest  brands  of  foreign  wines. 

Wine  is  the  fermented  juice  of  the  grape,  and  lyure 
uine  should  contain  nothing  else.     When  sugar  and 


286  THE    >T A  NUFACT URE    OF    WINE. 

Spices  are  added,  and  exist  in  the  fluid  as  snch,  the 
product  is  no  longer  wine,,  hut  liqueur  or  cordiaL 
Some  have,  however,  extended  this  principle  so  far 
as  to  assert  that  any  addition  to  the  juice  of  the 
grape,  either  before  or  after  its  fermentation,  robs  it 
of  its  claim  to  the  name  of  wine ;  but  to  this  we 
cannot  subscribe.  If  we  by  any  process  could  pro- 
duce a  fluid  identical  in  its  chemical  and  physical 
properties  with  the  juice  of  the  grape,  we  could  no 
doubt  make  good  and  real  wine  therefrom.  And  if 
so,  then  surely  the  addition  of  any  ingredient  which 
may  be  required  to  bring  the  juice  up  to  the  quality 
and  composition  of  a  good  wine-making  must,  cannot 
have  any  but  a  good  eff'ect,  and  must  produce  a  real 
wine. 

Now  the  juice  of  the  grape  varies  in  composition 
from  several  causes.  The  variety  of  grape,  the  cli- 
mate in  which  it  is  produced,  the  character  of  the 
soil  in  which  it  grows,  the  nature  of  the  manure  w^ith 
which  it  has  been  nourished,  the  mode  in  w^hich  it 
has  been  pruned,  its  exposure  to  sun  and  air,  and 
many  other  influences,  all  modify  the  character  of  the 
must,  and  consequently  of  the  wine  produced  there- 
from. In  almost  every  locality  we  are  confined  to  a 
few  varieties  of  grapes,  and  as  the  climatic  condi- 
tions are  also  in  a  great  measure  beyond  our  control, 
w^e  must  depend  upon  judicious  pruning,  manuring 
and  cultivation  for  the  production  of  the  best  grapes 
for  the  manufacture  of  wine.  In  former  chapters  we 
have  detailed  the  peculiarities  of  vine-dressing  as 
adapted  to  the  producing  of  wine-making  grapes; 


THE    MAi^FFAU'iUKE    OF    WINE.  287 

but  we  may  be  excused  lor  briefly  recaj  itulatin^ 
them. 

Must  for  wine  requires  to  be  highly  saccharine, 
and  although  the  wines  manufactured  from  Ame- 
rican grapes  have  not  yet  shown  much  inorganic 
matter  (potash  salts)  in  their  composition,  yet  the 
best  wines  in  Europe  are  made  from  grapes  contain- 
ing an  extra  quantity  of  these  matters.  In  order, 
therefore,  to  the  production  of  a  good  wine,  it  will 
be  requisite  to  produce  grapes  not  only  thoroughly 
ripened  by  a  hot  scn  acting  on  the  leaves,  but  they 
should  also  contain  the  juices  and  inorganic  salts  in 
large  amount. 

With  a  view  to  this,  it  will  be  necessary  in  the 
fall,  and  shortly  after  the  vintage,  to  lightly  fork  in  a 
dressing  of  bone-dust,  guano  or  hen  manure ;  and  on 
the  fall  of  the  leaf,  and  before  any  frosts  set  in,  the 
border  should  be  covered  with  the  fallen  leaves 
raked  together  and  mixed  with  stable  litter  or  clean- 
ings. This  will  protect  the  roots  from  the  severity 
of  our  winters,  and  enable  them  to  sustain  the  draft 
made  in  spring  by  the  branches  at  an  earlier  date 
than  they  otherwise  would. 

In  the  spring,  after  the  weather  has  become  settled, 
the  border  should  be  very  lightly  forked  over  and 
the  long  litter  removed ;  the  rest  may  be  mixed  with 
the  surface  soil. 

The  vine  having  been  properly  pruned,  must  be 
allowed  to  break  its  htds,  as  it  is  termed,  and  push 
out^  the  young  stems  until  those  which  pr:>mise  best 
can  be  clearly  distinguished. 


2S8  THE    MANCFACTUKE    OF   WINE. 

As  soon  as  the  leaves  are  formed,  liquid  manure 
may  Le  applied  if  the  number  of  vines  cultivated  will 
permit  of  it,  and  this  application  of  liquid  manure 
may  be  continued  until  after  the  middle  of  July.  It 
should  then  cease  for  the  season.  Meanwhile,  as 
soon  as  the  young  shoots  are  well  formed,  all  the 
weakly  ones  should  be  rubbed  off,  carrying  the  pru- 
ning recommended  in  former  pages  to  even  a  greater 
degree  of  severity  than  there  noted. 

By  these  means  the  grapes  will  be  obtained  ripe 
much  earlier  and  of  a  higher  (not  stronger)  flavor. 
The  importance  of  having  the  grapes  ripe  early  will 
be  appreciated  when  we  consider  that,  other  things 
being  equal,  the  heat  and  dryness  of  the  season  in 
which  they  ripen  will  be  the  measure  of  the  per- 
fection of  the  grapes,  at  least  in  this  latitude.  Xow, 
in  1858,  the  mean  temperature  of  August  was  60° 
Fahrenheit,  while  the  mean  temperature  of  Septem- 
ber was  only  61°,  and  as  the  amount  of  rain  which 
fell  in  each  month  was  equal,  the  grapes  which  were 
ripe  by  the  beginning  and  n)iddle  of  September  were 
much  richer  in  saccharine  and  other  wine-making 
elements  than  those  which  were  produced  in  the  cool 
and  damp  atmosphere  of  September  and  October. 

From  the  foregoing  observations  it  will  be  evident 
that  in  preparing  must  for  wine  we  must  pay  par- 
ticular attention  to  the  quality  of  the  grapes  and  the 
circumstances  under  which  they  were  ra'sed.  Thus, 
in  Cincinnati,  no  sugar  is  added  to  the  juice  of  the 
Catawba ;  it  is  fermented  just  as  it  comes  from  the 
press.     But  in  more  northern  climes,  not  only  does 


THE    MANUFACTURE    OF    WINE.  289 

tlie  juice  of  tlie  Isabella  and  Clinton  require  sugar, 
but  that  of  the  Catawba  stands  in  need  of  it,  in  order 
to  make,  not  a  sweet  but  a  full-bodied  wine,  which 
will  bear  keeping. 

In  the  manufacture  of  wine  from  the  grape,  the 
first  process  is  to  carefully  pick  over  all  the  grapes, 
rejecting  those  which  are  unripe,  rotten,  mildewed, 
or  imperfect  in  any  other  way.  The  rejection  of  the 
Btenis  will  depend  upon  the  cliaracter  of  the  wine 
desired.  If  retained,  they  impart  a  roughness  to  the 
wine,  wdiich  some  admire ;  and  it  is  claimed  by  some, 
that  the  tannin  of  the  stems  helps  to  preserve  the 
wine.  The  grapes  are  then  to  be  mashed,  which  is 
easily  done  with  the  hands  if  in  small  quantity.  In 
the  large  way  it  is  performed  by  passing  the  grapes 
between  rollers  armed  with  pins.  On  a  smaller  scale, 
a  beetle  or  stamper,  armed  wdth  pins,  may  be  used  ; 
and  where  but  a  few  are  prepared  (as  for  domestic 
purposes)  the  hands  alone  can  perform  the  work.  A 
gentleman  of  this  city  has  devised  a  very  useful  and 
efficient  machine,  in  which,  by  passing  the  grapes 
between  rollers  covered  with  india-rubber,  the  juice 
is  expressed  and  separated  from  the  husks  without 
bruising  the  stems  or  seeds. 

If  prepared  in  the  ordinary  way,  the  must  may  be 
allowed  to  ferment  either  before  or  after  the  juice  has 
been  separated  from  the  seeds  and  husks.  Ferment- 
ing the  husks  and  seeds  gives  a  roughness  and  harsh- 
ness to  the  wine  as  well  as  a  higher  color.  For  the 
finest  wines  the  juice  only  is  fermented. 

This  is  effected  by  simply  allowing  the  juice  to 
13 


290  THE    MANUFACTURE   OF   WINE. 

stand  in  casks  filled  three-fourths  fiilL  Fermentation 
speedily  sets  in  ;  the  saccharine  matter  becomes  con- 
verted into  carbonic  acid,  which  escapes,  and  alcohol, 
which  remains  in  combination  with  the  fluid,  and 
gives  it  the  character  of  wine.  At  first  the  fermen- 
tation is  very  violent,  but  after  a  time  it  moderates, 
when  the  casks  should  be  filled  up,  lightly  bunged, 
and  kept  during  winter  in  a  temperately  cool  apart- 
ment. In  spring  it  should  be  carefully  drawn  ofi^, 
either  by  means  of  a  syphon  or  through  a  hole  bored 
into  the  cask  some  distance  above  the  bottom,  so  as 
to  avoid  disturbing  the  lees.  After  this,  fermentation 
should  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible,  which  is  best 
eflfected  by  a  low  temperature  and  the  exclusion  of 
oxygen.  It  is  generally  considered  best,  we  believe, 
to  leave  the  wine  at  least  one  season  in  the  cask  into 
which  it  has  been  drawn  off.  In  some  cases  it  is  kept 
for  years  in  the  "  wood,"  as  it  is  termed. 

Wine  can  of  course  be  made  of  any  kind  of  grape, 
though  in  and  around  Cincinnati  the  Catawba  is 
altogether  preferred.  Tolerable  wine  has  been  made 
of  the  Isabella,  and  in  the  hands  of  Dr.  Underhill  it 
has  proved  of  superior  excellence  for  this  purpose. 
But  for  all  northern  localities  we  think  tb.e  Clinton 
promises  to  be  the  wine  grape.  When  carefully 
pruned  and  thinned^  so  as  to  get  fair  bunches  instead 
of  the  load  of  little  sour  trash  usually  seen,  the 
Clinton  grape  is  peculiarly  rich  in  saccharine  and 
saline  matter.  Of  its  wine-making  qualities  IS'icho- 
las  Longworth  speaks  as  follows  in  a  letter  to  "  The 
Horticulturist :" 


THE    MANUFACTURE    OF    WINE.  291 

"  I  believe  I  advised  you  that  the  must  and  wme  of  the 
Cinton  grape  differed  from  any  I  have  ever  seen.  The  must 
weighs  very  heavy,  indicating  a  large  quantity  of  saccharine 
matter;  the  wine,  fully  fermented,  acid  and  weighing  but  little, 
and  indicating  but  little  spirit.  Of  the  grapes  you  sent  last 
spring  I  made  two  kinds  of  wine.  One  part  I  pressed  as  soon 
as  worked,  and  put  at  the  rate  of  seventeen  ounces  of  sugar  to 
the  gallon  of  must ;  the  other  I  worked  and  left  to  ferment  in 
the  skins  before  pressing,  and  put  no  sugar.  The  first  is  a  beau- 
tiful dark  red,  which  I  have  never  seen  equalled,  and  very  clear. 
It  has  no  sweetness  and  is  rather  dry,  but  of  fine  flavor.  The 
other  is  clear,  very  dark  red,  and  more  acid,  but  of  fine  flavor. 
I  deem  that  in  our  warmer  latitu4^  the  must  Avill  have  more 
sugar,  and  will  make  a  valuable  red  wine,  an  article  we  have 
not  at  present. 

*'I  am  very  desirous  of  giving  the  grape  a  further  trial,  and 
shall  esteem  it  a  favor  if  you  will  engage  and  send  me  from  two 
to  five  bushels  of  grai)e3,  and  let  them  be  as  ripe  as  possible. 
I  shall  also  be  pleased  to  get  from  two  to  five  thousand  cut- 
tings. I  will  next  spring  graft  a  dozen  roots  with  this  grape, 
and  the  next  season  guarantee  to  have  grapes  enough  to  test 
how  they  will  suit  our  climate,  as  I  have  had  grafts  grow  the 
first  season  from  ten  to  thirty  feet,  and  often  bear  some  fruit  the 


The  following  letter,  received  from  a  lady  whose 
wine  we  can  testify  to  be  of  very  superior  excellence, 
contains  directions  slightly  different  from  those  in 
ordinary  nse,  and  in  some  respects  perhaps  superior. 
We  give  it  in  her  own  w^ords,  which  it  may  be  but 
justice  to  say,  were  not  originally  intended  for  pub 
lication : 

"  After  the  grapes  are  gathered,  pick  carefully  from  the  clus- 
ters all  the  good  ones.  Wash  these,  being  careful  not  to  mash 
the  seeds  (we  had  a  little  machine  for  this  purpose  that  turned 


292  THE    MANUFACTUKE    OF    WliS^E. 

"vvith  a  crank).  Have  ready  a  perfectly  sweet  cask,  that  has  a 
hole,  about  an  inch  in  diameter,  bored  in  one  side  near  the  bot- 
tom ;  fit  into  this  hole  a  stick  from  six  to  eight  inches  long,  with 
a  hole  bored  from  end  to  end  of  sufficient  size  to  let  the  juice 
floAv  freely  through  it.  Stop  this  hole  tightly  with  a  plug;  as 
the  grapes  are  mashed,  pour  the  juice,  skins,  pulp  and  all,  into 
the  cask.  "When  all  are  in,  cover  closely  with  four  or  five 
thicknesses  of  woollen  blankets ;  let  it  remain  in  this  condition 
until  fermentation  has  advanced  sufliciently  to  cause  the  grapes 
or  must  (as  I  believe  wine-makers  call  it)  to  rise  to  the  top  and 
begin  to  crack  open,  the  cracks  being  filled  with  little  yeasty- 
like  bubbles,  which  will  be  probably  in  from  four  to  eight  or 
ten  days,  according  to  the, temperature  of  the  weather.  Now 
Lave  ready  a  perfectly  clean  barrel,  purified  with  sulphur;  put 
ill  to  a  pail  ten  or  twelve  pounds  of  sugar,  take  out  the  little 
plug,  and  let  the  juice  on  the  sugar.  As  you  fill  the  pail,  stir 
the  sugar  occasionally  from  the  bottom,  so  as  to  dissolve  enongh 
of  it  to  make  the  juice  sufficiently  sweet.  If  the  sugar  should 
all  dissolve  before  the  juice  is  all  drawn  out,  of  course  put  in 
more.  When  the  barrel  is  full,  put  the  bung  in  lightly,  so  as  to 
give  it  a  chance  to  ferment.  The  little  cups  you  speak  of  were 
used  more  as  an  experiment  than  a  necessity ;  when  those  were 
used,  the  bung  was  fitted  in  tight  aud  a  small  hole  mnde  in  the 
bung,  and  a  tin  tube  inserted  in  it,  rising  from  the  bung,  the 
long  end  being  in  the  bung,  and  the  short  end  in  a  little  tin  cup 
filled,  and  kept  full  of  water,  care  being  taken  to  keep  the  bar- 
rel always  full;  but,  as  I  said  before,  this  was  not  necessary. 
After  the  juice  had  been  barrelled,  as  above  described,  let  it 
stand  till  some  clear,  cold  day  in  February,  Then  draw  off  the 
juice  and  put  it  in  another  barrel,  care  being  taken  to  have  it 
perfectly  clean  and  w^ell  fumigated  as  the  first  was;  save  a  pail- 
ful, and  when  all  has  been  drawn  off",  stir  into  this  pailful  the 
whites  of  ten  or  twelve  eggs,  beaten  to  a  froth,  as  you  would 
for  cake.  When  well  stirred,  pour  this  in  the  barrel  with  the 
rest.  After  being  well  incorporated  with  that  in  the  barrel, 
bung  it  up  tightly,  and  for  two  years  'touch  not,  taste  not, 
handle  not,'  and  as  much  longer  as  you  can  resist  the  tem[)ta- 


THE    MANUFACTURE    OF   WINE.  293 

tion,  as  it  improves  from  25  to  50  per  cent,  in  quality  every  year 
it  is  suffered  to  stand.  The  barrels  should  be  kept  in  a  dark 
cellar. 

"The  above  contams  all  the  most  important  particulars  of  the 
doctor's  process  of  making  wine,  to  the  best  of  my  recollection. 
It  will  answer  very  well  where  one  only  desires  to  make  a 
little  for  his  own  use;  but  would  hardly  answer  on  a  large 
sci.le. 

"Fumigating  the  barrels  with  a  sulphur  match  destroys  any 
musty  or  unpleasant  smell  which  the  barrel  may  have,  and  is 
done  by  melting  flowers  of  sulphur  or  roll  brimstone  in  an  iron 
vessel  on  the  stove ;  making  a  swab  by  rolling  a  rag  around  the 
end  of  an  iron  rod,  saturate  the  rag  with  the  melted  sulphur 
as  you  roll  it  around ;  stick  the  other  end  of  the  rod  into  a 
good  sized  potatoe,  and  set  fire  to  the  rag  or  swab ;  hang  it  in 
the  barrel  at  the  bung-hole,  the  potatoe  will  prevent  it  dropping 
down  in  the  barrel." 

The  following  recipes  for  currant  wine  are  perhaps 
more  useful  than  appropriate.  They  have  been  col- 
lected from  various  reliable  sources,  and  it  is  probable 
that  few  will  regret  their  insertion 

CUEEANT    WINE.* 

Three  varieties  of  currants  are  employed  in  making  wnne — 
wliite,  red  and  black  ;  but  the  two  first  are  most  common.  The 
wines  from  the  white  and  red  sorts  differ  a  little  from  each 
other  in  color,  also  in  flavor.  With  proper  management  tliey 
are  capable  of  producing  a  wine  analogous  to  the  lighter  wnnes 
of  the  grape,  according  to  Dr.  MacColloch,  "  not  easy  to  be 
distinguished  from  the  Colares  of  Portugal,  which  although  not 
in  the  first  class,  is  certainly  superior  to  most  of  our  don:iestic 
wines."    A 'principal  defect  in  currant  wine,  as  commonly  made, 

*  Copied  from  Webster's  "  Encyclopaedia  of  Domestic  Economy.'* 


294  THE    MANITFACTURE    OF   WINE. 

arises  from  too  small  a  quantity  of  the  frnit  being  used,  and  of 
course  too  much  sugar  and  water.  On  tliis  account,  and  from 
the  imperfect  fermentation,  these  wines  are  usually  too  sweet; 
and  from  a  natural  bad  flavor  in  the  husks,  which  are  often  kept 
in  the  must,  a  mawkish  taste  is  introduced.  By  increasing  the 
quantity  of  the  fruit,  which  is  generally  used  only  in  the  same 
proportion  as  in  gooseberry  wine,  and  avoiding  the  use  of  the 
husks,  the  flavor  and  quality  of  the  wine  are  materially  im- 
proved. 

At  present  only  sweet  wines  are  generally  made  from  cur- 
rants ;  but  dry  wines  may  also-  be  fabricated  from  this  fruit  by 
the  method  already-  pointed  out ;  for  these  the  fruit  should  be 
ripe. 

Brisk  wine  may  also  be  made,  and  then  a  proportion  of  unripe 
fruit  should  be  introduced.  The  use  of  tartar,  likewise,  Dr. 
MacColloch  is  of  opinion,  would  be  advantageous,  and  would 
correct  a  defect  not  uncommon,  that  of  having  an  ammoniacal 
taste.  Another  improvement  has  been  put  in  practice  with 
success,  not  only  in  making  currant  wine,  but  in  all  those  wines 
produced  from  fruits  of  which  tlie  flavor  is  either  bad  or  which 
have  little  or  no  flavor ;  this  is  by  boiling  the  fruit  juice  pre- 
viously to  fermentation.  From  this  treatment  many  tasteless 
fruits  acquire  a  flavor,  and  many  bad  flavors  are  converted  into 
agreeable  ones.  This  is  particularly  remarkable  in  the  case  of 
the  black  currant,  which,  though  harsh  in  its  natural  state, 
acquires  by  boiling  a  powerful  and  to  most  persons  an  agreeable 
flavor.  AVine  made  from  this  fruit  in  a  raw  state  has  no  par- 
ticular property,  whereas  that  of  the  boiled  may  be,  by  careful 
management,  brought  to  resemble  some  of  the  best  of  the  s\\  eet 
Cape  wines.  The  boiling  must  not  be  too  long  continued,  as 
this  degree  of  heat  tends  to  coagulate  and  precipitate  the  fer- 
ment, and  thus  render  it  ineff'ective.  Some  artificial  ferment  is 
generally  necessary  with  boiled  juice.  Great  care  must  be  taken 
in  separating  the  stalks,  and  if  the  skins  and  solid  matter  are 
fermented  in  the  vat,  they  must  not,  at  all  events,  be  introduced 
into  the  casks.  Many  persons  put  the  pure  juice  into  the  casks 
at  once,  strained,  without  any  previous  fermentation  in  the  vat 


THE    MANUFACTURE    OF    WINE.  295 


RECIPE   FOR   WHITE    OTTRRANT   "WINE. 

Bruise  forty  pounds  of  the  fruit  in  a  tub  of  the  capacity  of 
fifteen  or  twenty  gallons,  and  add  to  it  four  gallons  of  water. 
Stir  the  whole- well,  and  squeeze  till  the  pulp  is  thoroughly  sepa- 
rated from  the  skins;  leave  these  materials  at  rest  for  about 
twelve  hours,  and  then  strain  them  through  a  canvas  bag  or 
fine  hair  sieve,  and  pass  one  gallon  of  fresh  water  through  the 
marc.  Dissolve  thirty  or  twenty -five  pounds  of  white  sugar  in 
the  juice  thus  obtained,  and  make  up  the  whole  quantity  by  an 
addition  of  ten  gallons  and  a  half  of  water.  The  proportion  of 
sugar  here  given  is  for  a  brisk  wine  ;  if  a  sweet  wine  is  required, 
there  must  be  forty  pounds  of  sugar.  White  sugar  is  recom- 
mended as  much  the  best.  If  moist  sugar  be  used,  somewhat 
more  will  be  necessary.  The  must  being  now  prepared,  the 
fermentation  and  subsequent  treatment  must  be  exactly  the 
same  as  for  gooseberry  wine,  and  the  reader  may  therefore  refer 
to  that  recipe. 

If  brandy  is  to  be  added,  it  should  be  added  toward  the  end 
of  the  fermentation  in  the  cask.  For  the  above  quantity  some 
will  put  in  a  quart  of  brandy  alone  ;  others  mix  it  with  honey. 

Whether  the  wine  should  be  racked  off  from  the  lees  at  the 
end  of  six  months,  put  into  a  cask  for  six  months  longer  before 
it  is  bottled,  or  be  suffered  to  remain  the  whole  time  in  the  lees, 
must  depend  upon  the  state  of  the  wine  according  to  the  prin- 
ciples explained  above.  The  bottling  should  be  carefuUy 
attended  to. 

ANOTHER   RECIPE. 

White  currants,  nine  gallons  ;  white  gooseberries,  one  gallon ; 
white  sugar,  twenty -five  pounds  ;  white  tartar,  an  ounce  ;  bitter 
almonds,  two  ounces;  water,  nine  gallons;  brandy,  one  gallon. 

MR.  Cornell's  recipe  for  making  red  currant  wine. 
Bruise  eight  gallons  of  red  currants  with  one  quart  of  rasp- 
berries.    Tress  out  the  juice,  anfl  to  the  residuum,  after  pres- 


THE    MANUFACTURE    OF    WINE. 

Bure,  add  eleven  gallons  of  cold  water.  Add  two  pounds  of 
beet-root,  sftced  as  thin  as  possible,  to  give  color,  and  let  them 
infuse,  with  frequent  mixture,  for  twelve  hours ;  then  press  out 
the  liquor  as  before,  and  add  it  to  the  juice.  Next  dissolve 
twenty  pounds  of  raw  sugar  in  the  mixed  liquor,  and  three 
ounces  of  red  tartar  in  fine  powder.  In  some  hours  the  fer- 
mentation will  commence,  which  is  to  be  managed  according  to 
the  details  for  gooseberry  wine  and  the  principles  we  have 
stated  previously.  "When  the  fermentation  is  completely  over, 
add  one  gallon  of  brandy ;  let  the  wine  stand  for  a  week,  then 
rack  ofi",  and  let  stand  for  two  months.  It  may  now  be  finally 
racked  off,  bunged  up  in  a  cask,  and  set  by  in  a  cool  cellar  for 
as  many  years  as  may  be  required  to  ameliorate  it. 

BLACK    CUEEANT   WIXE 

May  be  made  in  the  same  manner,  using  six  gallons  of  black 
currants,  three  gallons  of  strawberries,  twenty-five  pounds  of 
raw  sugar,  four  ounces  of  red  tartar,  ten  gallons  of  cold  water, 
and  three  quarts  of  brandy. 

ELDEEBEEET    WINE. 

The  elderberry  is  well  adapted  to  the  production  of  wine.  Its 
juice  contains  a  considerable  portion  of  the  principle  necessary 
for  a  vigorous  fermentation,  and  its  beautiful  color  communi- 
cates a  rich  tint  to  the  wine  made  from  it.  It  is,  however, 
deficient  in  sweetness,  and  therefore  demands  an  addition  of 
sugar.  There  are  several  methods  of  making  this  wine ;  the 
following  are  some  of  the  most  approved  recipes : 

Take  one  gallon  of  ripe  elderberries  and  one  quart  of  damsons 
or  sloes,  for  two  gallons  of  wine  to  be  made;  boil  the  fruit  in 
about  half  the  quantity  of  water  till  they  burst,  breaking  them 
frequently  with  a  stick.  Strain  the  liquor  and  return  it  to  the 
copper.  To  produce  eighteen  gallons  of  wine,  twenty  gallons 
of  this  liquor  are  necessary,  and  for  whatever  quantity  tho 
liquor  falls  short  of  this,  water  must  be  added  to  make  up.  Boil 
this,  together  with  fifty-six  pounds  of  coarse  moist  sugar,  for 


THE   MANUFACTURE    OF   WINE.  207 

half  an  hour,  and  it  is  to  be  fermented  in  the  usual  manner 
when  sufficiently  cool,  and  then  is  to  be  tunned  or  put  into  the 
cask.  Put  now  into  a  muslin  bag  a  pound  and  a  half  of  ginger, 
bruised,  a  pound  of  allspice,  two  ounces  of  cinnamon,  and  four 
or  six  ounces  of  hops;  suspend  the  bag  with  the  spice  in  the 
cask  by  a  string,  not  long  enough  to  let  it  touch  the  bottom ;  let 
the  liquor  work  in  the  cask  for  a  fortnight,  and  fill  up  in  the 
usual  manner.  The  wine  will  be  fit  to  tap  in  two  months,  and 
is  not  improved  by  keeping  like  many  other  wines.  Elderber- 
ries alone  may  be  used. 

ANOTHER   METHOD. 

Elderberries,  ten  gallons;  water,  ten  gallons;  white  sugar, 
forty-five  pounds;  red  tartar,  eight  ounces;  fermented  with 
yeast  in  the  usual  manner.  When  in  the  cask,  ginger  root, 
sliced,  or  allspice,  four  ounces;  bitter  almonds,  three  ounces; 
suspended  in  a  bag,  may  be  allowed  to  infuse  in  the  liquor  when 
it  is  fermenting ;  they  are  then  to  be  removed.  Brandy  may 
t)e  added  or  not.  -When  the  wine  is  clear,  which  will  be  in 
about  three  months,  it  may  be  drawn  ofi"  from  the  lees  and  bot- 
tled.    The  spices  may  be  varied  according  to  taste. 

BLACKBEEET    WINE. 

To  one  quart  of  juice  two  quarts  of  water  and  three  pounds 
of  sugar.  The  berries  to  be  mashed  cold,  and  the  juice  ex- 
pressed and  strained.  The  sugar  dissolved  in  the  water  and 
strained.  The  whole  then  mixed  in  kegs  and  placed  in  a  cool 
cellar.  The  bung-hole  to  be  left  open  until  fermentation  has 
nearly  ceased,  then  closed  tight  and  left  standing  until  the  en- 
suing April,  when  it  should  be  carefully  drawn  and  bottled. 

STEAWBERRT    OR    RASPBERRY    WINE. 

Bruise  and  press  out  the  juice  of  either  fruits ;  pour  on  the 
marc  seven  gallons  of  water  ;  infuse  for  twelve  hours  and  press 
out  the  liquor.     A  dd  this  liquor  to  the  juice,  and  mix  them  with 

13* 


298  THE    MANUFACTURE    OF    WINE. 

six  gallons  of  cider.  Dissolve  in  the  mixture  sixteen  pounds  of 
raw  sugaV  and  tliree  ounces  of  powdered  red  tartai,  and  tlien 
set  it  to  ferment  in  the  usual  manner.  Pare  the  rinds  of  two 
lemons  and  of  two  oranges,  and  together  with  the  juice  throw 
them  into  the  fermenting  tub,  and  take  out  the  rinds  when  the 
fermentation  is  over.  Three  gallons  of  brandy  may  be  added. 
In  making  raspberry  wine,  a  gallon  of  white  and  red  currant 
juice  should  be  added,  and  an  equal  quantity  ot  water  left  out. 

OEANQE    WINE. 

Seville  oranges  are  used  for  this  purpose ;  they  are  best  in 
March.  For  eighteen  gallons  of  wine  half  a  chest  of  oranges  are 
required.  Pare  the  rinds  from  about  a  dozen,  or  two  dozen,  as 
more  or  less  of  the  bitter  will  be  agreeable.  Pour  over  this  a  quart 
or  two  of  boiling  water,  and  after  letting  this  stand  for  twelve 
hours,  strain  off  the  water,  which  extracted  much  of  the  essen- 
tial of  the  oranges.  Take  the  peel  off  entirely  from  the 
remainder  of  the  oranges,  squeeze  the  juice  through  a  bag  or 
sieve,  and  put  it  into  a  cask  with  about  forty-five  pounds  of 
white  sugar  or  fifty-five  of  the  best  moist  sugar.  Soak  the  pulp 
in  water  for  twenty-four  hours,  and  after  straining  this,  add  it 
to  the  cask.  Repeat  this  several  times  till  the  cask  is  full.  Stir 
the  whole  well  with  a  stick  till  the  sugar  is  dissolved,  then  set 
it  to  ferment.  The  fermentation  is  slower  than  with  currant 
wine,  but  may  be  heard  hissing  for  several  weeks.  When  this 
subsides,  close  the  bung-hole,  and  proceed  as  in  the  case  with 
gooseberry  wine.  Some  add  brandy.  The  wine  requires  to  be 
kept  in  the  cask  a  year  before  it  is  bottled. 

GINGEE    WINE. 

Dissolve  eighteen  or  twenty  pounds  of  sugar  in  nine  and  a 
half  gallons  of  boiling  water,  and  add  to  it  ten  or  twelve  ounces 
of  bruised  ginger  root.  Boil  the  mixture  for  about  a  quarter 
of  an  hour,  and  when  nearly  cold  add  to  it  half  a  pint  of  yeast, 
and  pour  it  into  a  cask  to  ferment,  taking  care  to  fill  the  cask 
from  time  to  time  with  the  surplus  of  the  liquor  made  for  tliat 


THE   MANUFACTURE    OF    WINE.  299 

pnrpost.  Wh^n  the  fermentation  ceases,  rack  off  the  wine,  and 
bottle  it  when  transparent.  It  is  a  common  practice  to  boil  the 
outer  rind  of  a  few  lemons  together  with  the  ginger  destined 
for  the  wine,  to  impart  to  the  wine  tlie  flavor  of  lemon  peel. 

OUEEANT  WINE. 

Gather  the  currants  when  fullj  ripe ;  press  and  measure  the 
juice  ;  add  two-thirds  water,  and  to  each  gallon  of  that  mixture 
put  three  pounds  of  Muscovado  sugar  (the  cleaner  and  drier  the 
better ;  verj  coarse  sugar,  first  clarified,  will  do  equally  well) ; 
stir  it  well  until  the  sugar  is  quite  dissolved,  and  then  tun  it  up. 
Do  not  let  the  juice  stand  over  night  before  mixing;  or  at  least 
not  so  long  as  to  ferment. 

Make  rather  more  than  to  fill  the  casks,  so  as  to  fill  them  up 
after  drawing  off  the  wine. 

Lay  the  bung  lightly  on  the  hole,  to  prevent  flies,  etc.,  from 
creeping  in.  In  three  weeks  or  a  month  after  making,  the  bung- 
hole  may  be  stopped  up,  leaving  only  the  vent-hole  open,  until 
the  wine  has  done  working,  which  will  be  about  the  latter  end 
of  October.  It  may  then  be  racked  off  into  other  clean  casks  ; 
but  some  persons  prefer  letting  it  stand  on  the  lees  until  spring, 
as  it  thus  acquires  a  stronger  body  and  is  in  a  great  measure 
divested  of  that  sweet,  luscious  taste  peculiar  to  made-wine. 
It  may  without  damage  stand  two  years  on  the  lees. 

When  it  is  to  be  drawn  off;  bore  a  hole  at  least  an  inch  above 
the  tap-hok,  a  little  to  the  side  of  it,  that  it  may  run  Slear  off 
the  lees. 


APPENDIX    I. 

EXAMPLES  OF  AMERICAN  VINEYARD  PRACTICE. 


THE  OHIO   SYSTEM  OF  YINEYAED  CULTURE. 

This  is  merelj  a  modification  of  the  Frencli  and  German 
methods,  having  been  generally  introduced  by  vine-dressers 
from  those  countries.  It  is,  we  believe,  now  generally  giving 
place  to  the  trellis  system  of  culture,  which  seems  to  be  better 
adapted  to  the  habit  of  our  native  vines.  Vines  and  even  vine- 
yards may  be  found  around  Cincinnati,  which  are  trained  dif- 
ferently from  the  method  here  described,  but  nevertheless,  the 
following  is  what  is  known  as  the  Ohio  system. 

The  ground  having  been  properly  prepared,  the  vineyard  is 
set  out  either  with  cuttings  or  rooted  plants,  generally  the 
former.  In  setting  ont  cuttings,  holes  about  two  feet  deep  are 
made  with  a  stilt  or  dibble,  shod  with  iron,  and  after  inserting 
two  cuttings  in  each,  the  holes  are  filled  in  with  sand  which  is 
washed  into  immediate  contact  with  the  cuttings  by  means  of 
water.  During  the  first  season,  the  vines  are  allowed  to  grow 
at  random,  the  ground,  however,  being  kept  clean  and  mellow. 

In  the  spring  of  the  second  season  the  vines  are  pruned,  which 
is  done  by  removing  all  the  wood  made  by  the  young  cutting, 
and  also  all  the  roots  which  spring  from  the  cutting,  within 
several  inches  of  the  surface.  Fig.  1  shows  the  young  plant. 
The  soil  being  removed,  the  roots  e^  e,  e  are  cut  oft'  close  to  the 


302  APPENDIX   I. 


^ 

^-T 


Fig.  65. 

stem,  tlie  shoots  a  d  are  cut  clean  out,  and  c  is  cut  down  to  one 
eye,  which  should  be  as  near  the  old  wood  as  possible,  and  if  on 
it,  so  much  the  better.  Duriii}2^  the  second  year  the  vines  are 
treated  nearly  the  same  as  the  cuttings  were  during  the  first 
year,  and  the  spring  pruning  is  also  the  same. 

During  the  third  summer,  three  or  four  shoots  are  trained  up 
and  carefully  tied  to  stakes ;  laterals  are  pinched  out  and  the 
shoots  stopped  in  September. 

During  the  fourth  year,  the  vines  are  allowed  to  bear  on  the 
spurs  produced  by  cutting  back  the  shoots  of  the  previous 
season  to  six  or  eight  inches.  These  spurs  of  course  throw  up 
fruit-bearing  canes,  which  during  the  fifth  season  are  tied  to 
stakes  in  bows,  so  as  produce  a  crop  of  grapes,  and  at  the  winter 
pruning  the  bows  are  cut  away,  their  place  being  filled  next 
season  by  a  fresh  cane  trained  up  for  the  purpose  during  the  pre- 
ceding summer. 


APPENDIX   I. 


303 


The  following  figures  will  illustrate  this  fully  :     Fig.  GG  shows 
the  vine  in  the  fall  of  the  fourth  year ;    h  is  the  head  of  the 


Fig.  66. 


vine,  B  the  arms  or  thighs,  as  they  are  sometimes  called ;  and 
a,  &,  c,  d  are  the  canes  which  bore  fruit  last  year ;  h  and  c  are 
cut  off  to  one  good  bud,  and  a  and  d^  after  being  shortened,  are 
formed  into  bows  and  tied  to  stakes,  so  that  the  vine  in  the  spring 
of  the  fifth  year  presents  the  appearance  shown  in  Fig.  67. 
The  bow  will  now  yield  a  liberal  crop  of  grapes,  and  a  few 
bunches  will  be  obtained  from  the  shoots  springing  from  the 
spurs  h  and  c,  though  they  must  not  be  allowed  to  bear  much, 
as  it  is  desired  that  they  should  grow  strong  and  vigorous  so  as 
to  form  the  bows  for  next  year.  If  tlie  vines  are  strong,  they 
may  be  allowed  to  bear  more,  and  other  spurs  are  sometimes 
allowed  to  grow  from  the  arms  where  the  vines  will  bear  it. 


30i 


APPENDIX    I. 


Fig.  m. 


The  arms  themselves  are  renewed  every  few  years,  so  a'  to  get 
rid  of  all  the  old  gnarled  spars,  by  training  new  shoots  from  the 
spurs  e  e. 


APPENDIX   I.  3(^)5 


DR.  UNDERHILL'S  VINEYARDS  AT  CROTON  POINT. 

The  following  account  of  Dr.  Underliill's  Vineyards  is  taken 
from  the  ''  Country  Gentleman "  of  September  25tli,  185G. 
Since  that  account  was  published,  Dr.  Underhill  has  greatly 
extended  his  vineyards,  and  is  thus  enabled  to  devote  more  of 
his  grapes  to  the  production  of  wine  without  lessening  the 
quantity  of  fruit  sent  to  New  York  market. 

"  The  readers  of  our  papers  have  long  been  familiar  with  the  name  of 
Dr.  Underhill  as  a  grower  of  Isabella  and  Catawba  vines,  and  lovers  of 
well  ripened  and  carefully  marketed  grapes  in  New  York  city,  as  the 
most  extensive  producer  of  this  fruit  in  its  vicinity.  He  began  to  plant 
the  varieties  named,  or  at  least  the  former  of  them,  about  twenty-five 
years  ago,  having  previously  made  some  unsuccessful  attempts  at  grow- 
ing foreign  sorts  without  shelter;  and  he  has  been  untiring  in  his  subse- 
quent efforts  to  attain  the  best  mode  of  cultivation  in  every  particular, 
from  the  first  setting  of  the  slip,  to  the  productive  maturity  of  the  plant  in 
the  vineyard.  He  is  now  in  possession  of  nearly  a  hundred  acres  of  land, 
of  which  upward  of  forty  are  in  grapes,  or,  with  the  addition  of  adjoin- 
ing viue3^ards  belonging  to  his  brother,  there  are  more  than  fifty  acres  in 
all,  to  the  sale  of  plants  and  the  marketing  of  fruit  from  which  Dr.  Under- 
hill gives  his  undivided  attention. 

"  Croton,  or  Teller's  Point,  as  it  was  formerly  called,  juts  into  the 
river  fully  half  its  width,  dividing  Haverstraw  bay  above  from  the  Tappan 
Zee  below.  The  stream  from  which  it  has  received  the  name  it  now 
generally  goes  by,  falls  into  the  Hudson  on  the  south — what  is  left  of  it 
after  being  dammed  and  drained  off"  for  the  benefit  of  New  York  city. 
The  extreme  point  of  the  little  peninsula  turns  downward,  commanding  iu 
this  direction  one  of  the  finest  river  views  among  the  many  beautiful  ones 
for  which  the  Hudson  is  justly  famous.  Here,  once  in  Revolutionary 
times,  was  fired  a  humble  cannon  at  the  Vulture  in  the  bay  below — scar- 
ing her  from  her  anchorage,  and  leaving  Andre  without  means  of  safe 
escape  from  the  plot  he  was  projecting  with  the  traitorous  Arnold.  The 
Boil  is  nearly  a  pure  gravelly  sand,  underlaid  at  a  depth  of  twenty  or 
thirty  feet  with  clay,  and  bordered  here  and  there  at  the  river's  edge 


806  APPENDIX    I. 

with  alluvial  deposits.  Occasionally  the  upland  is  slightly  loamy,  but  for 
the  most  part  entirely  sand,  as  above  described. 

"  Dr.  Underbill  plants  his  vineyards  either  in  spring  or  fall  as  may  be 
convenient,  setting  the  vines  seven  feet  apart,  in  rows  six  and  a  half  feet 
from  each  other.  This  will  take  about  one  thousand  to  the  acre.  In  his 
position  as  to  climate  and  weather,  he  thinks  the  question  of  the  inclina- 
tion of  the  land  immaterial,  though  further  north  he  would  prefer  an 
eastern  or  southern  exposure,  or  one  varying  near  these  points.  He  has 
found  it  best  to  place  the  rows  so  that  the  prevailing  summer  winds  may 
have  free  course  through  them — contrary  to  the  Eurojiean  practice,  in 
which  circulation  of  the  atmosphere  is  avoided,  chiefl}^  on  account  of  the 
frequency  of  cold  storms.  He  has  found  that  here  it  is  beneficial,  pre- 
venting mildew  and  promoting  the  healthiness  of  plant  and  fruit. 

"  In  the  number  of  plants  to  the  acre  his  practice  is  also  widely  diver- 
gent from  that  in  Germany  and  about  Cincinnati — where  twenty-five 
hundred  is  an  ordinary  thing.  By  placing-  them  at  greater  distances  he 
is  enabled  to  'secure  a  crop  the  first  year,'  as  he  remarked — if  not  of 
grapes,  of  something  else  between  the  rows,  and  as  the  vines  do  not  bear 
until  the  third  summer  this  is  a  matter  of  some  importance.  They  are 
also  taken  care  of  much  more  easily,  as  horses  can  be  employed  to  culti- 
vate the  ground,  where  only  men  could  otherwise  be  admitted,  and, 
finally,  he  thinks  the  yield  quite  as  good  and  great,  as  can  be  produced 
from  more  plants  on  the  same  space.  In  fact,  in  ten  years,  if  the  vines 
crowd  at  all,  or  the  land  is  too  rich,  he  sometimes  finds  it  expedient  to  re- 
move every  other  vine  in  the  rows,  thus  leaving  only  five  hundred  to  the 
acre.  One  man,  according  to  his  mode,  cares  for  six  acres — at  least  four 
times  as  much  as  he  could  do  on  the  German  plan.  Dr.  Underbill  is  op- 
posed on  the  most  stringent  principles  to  allowing  any  of  his  land  to  lie 
waste  and  idle,  and  by  obtaining  two  crops  from  it  before  the  grape 
becomes  large  enough  to  produce,  compels  the  vineyard  to  pay  while  it 
is  being  made,  though  after  the  vines  begin  to  yield  he  entirely  excludes 
every  other  species  of  vegetation. 

"  To  adapt  the  ground  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  exact  wants  of  the 
grape,  has  been  the  subject  of  many  and  long  experiments  with  Dr. 
Underbill.  During  his  first  trials  he  expended  a  great  deal  on  artificial 
fertilizers,  but  further  experience  has  taught  him  to  increase  the  produc- 
tiveness of  his  soil  from  the  resources  of  his  own  farm.  This  he  fully 
coincides  with  us  in  believing  to  be  the  true  principle  for  every  farmer  to 
act  upon.  It  would  be  a  lesson  worth  the  studying  for  most  farmers  to 
see  the  economy  he  displays  in  preserving  all  farm  manures  of  whatever 
kind.  He  has  no  fences  on  his  farm — his  horses,  cows  and  oxen  being 
stabled  the  year  round.  The  leaves  upon  the  woodland  are  raked  up  in 
autumn  to  serve  as  bedding,  and  it  is  found  that  they  pack  of  their  own 
Teight  so  as  to  occupy  far  less  room  than  would  be  supposed,  while  they 


APPENDIX    I.  807 

answer  the  purpose  admirably,  as  well  as  form  a  valuable  constituent  in 
the  resultant  manure.  An  apartment  of  moderate  size  serves  to  contain 
a  sufficient  quantity  to  last  nearly  or  quite  the  whole  twelve  months. 
Every  drop  of  liquid  manure,  from  stables  and  styes,  and  brought  b^ 
drains  from  the  house  and  out-houses,  is  collected  in  cisterns.  In  it,  pre- 
viously to  being  pumped  out  for  use,  Dr.  Underbill  dissolves  potash,  in 
the  proportion  perhaps  of  one  hundred  weight  to  thirty  hogsheads — 
which  is  thought  to  have  the  effect  of  making  the  manure  more  active,  as 
well  as  being  cheaper  than  ashes,  in  supplying  the  necessary  ingredients 
abstracted  by  the  crops  from  the  soil.  A  cheap  and  coarse  kind  is 
bought  at  three  and  a  half  or  four  cents  a  pound. 

"We  should  here  devote  a  few  words  to  the  compost  heaps  we  have 
passed  here  and  there,  in  our  walk  over  the  place.  These  Dr.  Underbill 
begins,  say  with  a  stratum  of  the  alluvial  deposits  from  the  river  side, 
followed  by  one  of  horse  or  cow  manure  or  both,  then  one  of  the  sods 
from  along  the  roads,  paths,  etc.,  then  the  alluvia  again,  and  so  on.  After 
thev  reach  some  height  and  when  the  manure  cisterns  chance  to  be  full, 
a  man  perforates  them  here  and  there  with  a  crowbar,  and  the  liquid  is 
brought  in  a  cart  and  put  on,  hogshead  after  hogshead,  till  the  whole  is 
saturated.  They  are  made  amply  broad  enough  for  a  cart  track,  ex- 
tended to  any  length,  and  as  they  slowly  settle  down  carried  higher  and 
higher  by  additional  layers  till  six  or  eight  feet  above  the  ground.  The 
same  pile  accumulates  the  manures  of  nine  months  or  so.  and  receives  four 
or  five  thorough  wettings.  The  value  of  a  compost  heap  thus  prepared,  in 
comparison  with  its  cost,  as  would  be  readily  conjectured,  is  very  great 

"  In  the  preparation  of  the  ground  for  his  vineyards.  Dr.  Underbill  thinks 
that  thorough  ploughings  answer  every  purpose.  In  one  case,  he  had  had 
the  earth  trenched  with  spades,  to  the  depth,  we  think,  of  three  spits,  but 
the  effect  produced  was  of  too  little  increased  benefit  to  pay  for  the  ex- 
pense, which  was,  if  we  recollect,  in  the  neighborhood  of  four  hundred 
and  fifty  dollars  per  acre.  He  adds  a  dressing  of  clay  to  render  the  soil 
more  firm,  and  prevent  its  feeling  so  quickly  the  changes  in  the  tempe- 
rature of  the  atmosphere,  and  absorbing  the  rains  so  rapidly  as  to  drench 
and  chill  the  roots.  A  less  quantity  will  answer  every  purpose  than 
might  be  apprehended — in  pretty  thorough  trials  he  had  found  three  or 
four  hundred  loads  sufficient  on  an  acre  of  his  rather  coarse,  gravelly 
sands.  In  one  experiment  he  had  spread  a  vineyard  of  about  six  acres 
with  5,000  loads  of  alluvia  and  3,000  of  clay  ;  but  it  proved  too  rich  and 
heavy. 

"  The  vinos  are  permitted  to  bear  the  first  crop  on  a  temporary  trellis 
of  stakes  driven  into  the  ground  and  connected  by  a  single  wire.  The 
permanent  trellis  is  then  erected  by  putting  in  firm  chestnut  posts  about 
seven  feet  high,  and  running  along  them  a  couple  of  wires  for  the  second 
crop,  and  a  third  one  near  the  top  the  subsequent  season.    The  wire  used 


308  APrENDix  I. 

is  from  number  10  to  12.  We  have  not  tlie  space  nor  the  necessary  ac- 
quaintance with  the  subject  to  describe  at  length  Dr.  Underhill's  method 
of  pruning.  It  is  progressive,  that  is,  different  for  each  of  a  succession 
of  years  as  a  vine  grows  older,  until  it  finally  reaches  maturity.  The 
chief  object  kept  in  view,  of  course  modified  to  meet  particular  circum- 
stances, is  to  depend  on  this  yearns  growth  of  wood  for  next  year's  growth 
of  fruit.  The  ground  is  thoroughly  ploughed  once  in  the  spring,  and  the 
spaces  dug  between  the  vines  ;  after  this  the  harrow  and  cultivator  are 
depended  on  to  keep  the  soil  loose  and  free  from  weeds,  until  the  fruit 
begins  to  change  its  color — when  no  one  is  permitted  to  go  between  the 
rows  until  the  picking  begins.  By  thus  employing  horses  and  imple- 
ments, the  expense  is  very  much  less  than  on  the  German  plan  of  merely 
spading  and  hoeing. 

"  When  the  fruit  is  formed  in  June,  as  much  as  three-fourths  to  four- 
fifths  of  it  are  cut  away — only  the  small  remaining  fraction  being  suf- 
ered  to  ripen.  Thus,  and  by  a  careful  system  of  pruning,  the  strength 
of  the  plant  is  economized,  and  wholly  devoted  to  the  end  of  com- 
pletely maturing  the  juices  which  form  both  the  vine  and  the  fruit, 
and  adding  particularly  to  the  size  and  sweetness  of  the  latter.  Every 
effort  has  been  made  to  subject  the  main  vitality  of  the  plant  to  the  one 
purpose  of  producing  the  best  fruit  rather  than  the  most  wood;  and  by 
these  efforts,  by  careful  pruning,  and  proportioning  the  quantity  of  fruit 
ripened  to  the  capabilities  of  the  vine.  Dr.  Underbill  estimates  that  he  has 
succeeded  in  adding  much  to  the  strength  of  the  plants  themselves,  to  the 
excellence  of  the  fruit  they  bear,  and  in  making  the  period  of  its  maturity 
earlier  from  season  to  season,  so  that  there  is  an  average  difference  of  at 
least  twelve  days  between  the  time  of  the  ripening  of  the  grapes  now  and 
that  when  he  commenced  his  efforts  25  years  ago.  This  appears  to  be  no 
inconsiderable  advantage  in  favor  of  vines  from  his  grounds  ;  inasmuch  as 
\re  see  no  reason  why  the  same  causes  which  operate  to  produce  this 
earlier  period  of  ripening  in  his  vineyards,  should  not  also  have  a  similar 
effect  on  cuttings  grown  from  them  with  the  same  care  to  the  age  of  set- 
ting out.  He  has  plants  for  sale  at  the  age  of  two,  three,  and  we  think 
also  four  years  old,  as  purchasers  may  prefer.  About  one-third  of  the 
vineyards  are  Catawbas,  the  remaia;lar  Isabellas — the  latter  of  which  has 
been  found  the  sm-est  for  a  crop,  though  it  is  very  seldom  that  either  falls 
short,  and  we  understood  that  for  many  years  past,  Dr.  Underbill  had  not 
experienced  a  siugle  entire  failure.  The  present  season  has  been,  on  the 
whole,  a  cooler  one  than  the  average — according  to  his  expectations, 
based  as  he  told  us,  upon  the  fact  that  every  tenth  year  regularly  proves  a 
cold  one — at  least  he  knew  such  to  have  been  the  case  for  certainly  sixty 
years  back,  and  had  no  doubt  it  would  continue  so.  The  crop  is  very 
good,  however,  the  berries  and  bunches  being  especially  large.  We  saw 
Bome  Isabellas  that  entirely  exceeded  in  these  respects  anything  we  have 


APPENDIX    I.  309, 

seen  before — here  and  there  a  cluster  that  must  have  been  very  nearly  a 
pound  in  weight— and,  although  none  were  ripe  enough  to  taste,  we  could 
easily  credit  Dr.  Ualerhlir.s  assuiMnces  that  they  would  soon  prove  aa 
luscious  as  they  then  looked. 

''The  doctor  is  rightly  very  particular  that  none  shall  go  to  market 
until  they  are  folly  ripe.  He  savs  it  requires  a  good  deal  of  experience 
and  judgment  to  determine  when  they  are  ready  for  market.  He  expected 
to  begin  picking  about  the  loth,  and  he  generally  continues  the  marketing 
season  for  about  two  months.  During  this  period  he  engages  a  store  in 
New  York,  where  his  grapes  are  all  disposed  of,  with  the  exception  of 
those  retailed  at  confectionery  and  other  stores  through  the  city,  and 
consumed  at  the  hotels.  His  lowest  wholesale  price  is  fifteen  cents  per 
lb.  ;  by  the  basket  to  families,  sixteen ;  and  when  less  than  a  basket  is 
sold,  twenty.  One  point  which  we  should  not  omit  to  note,  inasmuch  aa 
it  is  one  in  which  fruit-growers  are  far  too  generally  negligent  and  regard- 
less of  their  own  interest,  is  the  care  and  nicety  with  which  Dr.  Underhiil 
prepares  his  fruit  for  market.  We  have  seen  his  particularity  in  respect 
to  the  entire  ripeness  of  all  that  are  picked  ;  and  every  bunch  of  the  vast 
number  he  sells  is  looked  over,  and  the  defective  berries  cut  out  by  hand, 
so  that  not  one  may  be  left  which  a  child  two  years  old  might  not  eat 
with  impunity.  Then,  put  up  in  new  and  neat  baskets,  they  present  an 
attractive  appearance,  which  goes  a  great  way  in  winning  the  heart^-or, 
perhaps,  we  should  rather  say,  inciting  the  appetite  of  the  purchaser. 

''When  Dr.  Underhiil  commenced,  a  good  many  years  ago,  he  was  the 
first  and  only  one  m  the  business,  and  could  only  command  about  five 
cents  a  pound  for  nis  fruit.  He  has  not  endeavored  to  retain  this  mono- 
poly, but  is  always  happy  to  explain  everything  he  knows  to  any  inquirer, 
and  justly  thinks  that  the  m6re  good  fruit  he  can  induce  others  to  grow, 
the  more  public  attention  will  be  brought  to  the  luxury,  or  indeed  the 
necessity  of  the  article,  and  the  greater  will  be  the  consequent  request 
for  it.  How  just  were  these  calculations,  is  shown  in  the  ample  demand 
that  now  exists  for  all  he  can  grow  at  three  times  the  price  at  which  he 
started.  We  trust  that  he  will  not  give  up  his  present  purpose  of  some- 
time presenting  to  the  world  the  system  which  his  long  and  careful,  and, 
we  may  add,  profitable,  experience  has  matured. 

''There  are  several  other  points  wliich  we  had  it  in  mind  to  speak  of 
at  some  length,  connected  with  Dr.  Underhill's  agricultural  and  horti- 
cultural practice.  The  extent  of  the  present  paper  will  compel  us  to  be 
very  brief. 

"  Several  lessons  may  be  derived  by  every  farmer  from  what  has  been 
already  written.  He  has  seen  how  our  friend  economizes  all  his  manures, 
and  how  he  has  discovered  the  secret  not  only  of  constantly  increasing 
the  fertility  of  his  lands,  but  of  adapting  the  crop  groitm  to  the  ivants  of  his 
nearest  market,  and  thereby  obtaining  very  much  greater  profits  than  the 

13 


310  APPENDIX    I. 

old  farm  routine  could  in  any  way  be  made  to  yield.  How  lie  has  proved 
the  vineyard  rules  received  from  European  authorities  far  from  being  best 
adapted  for  his  situation  and  circumstances,  and  thought  out,  and  worked 
out  by  experiment,  a  s^'stem  for  himself.  How  he  has  created  a  new  de- 
mand with  the  public,  while  he  was  himself  supplying  it,  and  how 
scrupulous  he  always  is  that  every  product  he  sells  shall  be  superior  of 
its  kind  and  put  up  in  the  best  style.  It  is  self-evident,  we  think,  that  not 
one  of  these  particulars  is  immaterial  to  the  farmer  who  would  succeed 
well  in  his  business. 

"Another  which  we  wish  to  bring  forward,  is  the  way  in  which  Dr.  Under- 
bill contrives,  in  almost  every  process,  if  we  may  quote  a  homely  proverb, 
to  "kill  two  birds  with  one  stone."  Where  he  has  dug  the  deposits  of 
vegetable  and  alluvial  matter  by  the  water's  edge,  for  manure,  a  very 
little  extra  labor  has  transformed  the  ugly  excavation  into  a  fish  pond;  a 
water  gate  admits  the  fish  from  the  river  but  will  not  let  them  out,  and 
through  the  same  channel  the  rising  and  falling  tide  prevents  the  lakelet 
from  lying  stagnant.  The  pond  not  only  supplies  fish,  but  plums — the 
trees  being  planted  over  it  at  an  angle  of  perhaps  forty-five  degrees  to  pre- 
vent tlie  ravages  of  the  curculio,  v/hile  it  is  also  bordered  with  pears  and 
quinces,  and  thus  the  land  dug  out  and  removed  is  not  only  made  to  yield 
a  crop  of  fruit  where  it  is  put  as  manure,  but  another  over  the  hole  it  left 
behind.  The  forests  are  cleared  out  and  seeded  with  orchard-grass,  and 
the  leaves  falling  in  autumn  are  taken  away  for  use,  as  we  have  seen,  as 
well  as  that  they  miy  not  smother  the  turf  where  they  fell.  Sods  are 
required  for  the  manure  heap,  and  paths  and  roads  tastefully,  and  here 
and  there  quite  picturesquely  threading  the  woods  and  climbing  the  river 
banks,  are  laid  out  and  kept  in  order  to  yield  them,  as  well  as  to  furnish 
delightful  drives  and  walks.  It  may  abate  somewhat  from  the  romance 
of  the  beautiful,  thus  to  find  the  useful  ever  lurking  under  its  mantle,  but  it 
certainly  brings  it  within  the  reach  of  many  who  now  fancy  it  something 
beyond  or  above  them,  as  well  as  places  it  in  a  new  light  to  not  a  few, 
who  are  in  the  habit  of  considering  themselves  far  too  pj-actical  to  seek  it 
UtUe  dulci  is  Pr.  Underhill's  motto.'' 


APPENDIX   I.  311 


JUDGE  COXKLIN'S  VINEYARD  ON  LONG  ISLAND. 

From  the  Country  Gentleman. 

"  The  facts  in  the  following  description  were  derived  from  a  memoran- 
dum prepared  by  Judge  Conklin  at  our  request,  which,  togetlier  with  a 
personal  examination  of  the  vineyard,  will  enable  us  to  show  the  actual 
results  of  his  mode  of  cultivation. 

"The  first  experiments  were  made  with  the  foreign  varieties ;  they  grew 
vigorously  and  fruited  uniformly  well,  especially  the  chasselas  or  sweet 
water,  producing  full  crops  of  fine  grapes  for  several  years.  After  experi- 
menting with  them  four  or  five  years,  they  began  to  fail  in  maturing  their 
fruit,  which  was  supposed  to  be  owing  to  the  severity  of  the  cli'r.ate  on 
this  island.  A  subsequent  trial  of  three  or  four  years  more  proved  tlrs 
to  be  the  case,  after  which  the  open  field  culture  of  all  the  foreign  varie- 
ties was  given  np  as  useless. 

"In  the  mean  ime  a  few  cuttings  of  the  Isabella  which  were  planted 
began  to  produce  some  fruit,  which  appeared  to  be  a  pretty  good  substi- 
tute for  the  more  delicately  flavored  foreign  varieties,  and  from  the  date 
of  this  discovery  the  vineyard  was  commenced. 

"Situation  and  Soil. — The  grounds  are  located  at  Cold  Spring  Bay, 
around  which  the  hills  are  steep  and  abrupt,  leaving  but  a  narrow  slope 
of  arable  land  between  their  wooded  declivities  and  the  shore ;  beyond 
these  wooded  hills,  which  rise  from  a  quarter  to  half  a- mile,  are  fine  culti- 
vated table  lands.  Below  the  woods,  on  a  western  slope,  lies  the  oldest 
part  of  the  vineyard,  and  beyond  the  woods  on  the  table  land,  lies  the 
more  recently  planted  portion.  The  soil,  like  most  in  this  part  of  the  is- 
land, is  light  and  porous,  composed  of  sandy  mold  and  a  large  proportion 
of  gravel,  containing  small  stones  from  the  size  of  a  pea  to  three  inches 
in  diameter,  mostly  of  polished  quarts.  Some  spots  are  quite  alluvial  to 
a  considerable  depth,  formed  by  the  action  of  the  rain  descending  from 
the  hills;  other  portions  approach  the  quality  of  soil  called  light  loam, 
which  is  esteemed  best  for  all  general  purposes  ;  the  under  stratum  is  ex- 
tremely porous,  full  of  coarse  gravel  and  small  stones,  with  layers  of  sand 
but  no  clay.  On  account  of  the  steepness  of  the  declivity,  some  of  the 
ground  required  to  be  terraced,  the  descent  t),eing  so  great  as  to  wash 
both  soil  and  seed  into  the  harbor  during  the  prevalence  of  heavy  rains. 
The  most  abrupt  portion  was  so  barren  that  after  it  was  terraced  it  ap- 


312  APPENDIX    I. 

peared  like  mere  banks  of  gravel  and  dead  earth.  In  this  place  it  required 
a  long  time  to  establish  the  vines;  the  rays  of  the  sun  beat  down  in  the 
afternoon  almost  vertically  during  the  long  and  severe  droughts  with 
which  we  were  visited  for  several  years;  but  after  continued  watering 
and  mulching,  they  were  at  length  established,  and  are  now  loaded  to 
their  utmost  capacity  with  fruit. 

"  The  foregoing  remarks  upon  the  soil  are  applicable  only  to  that  por- 
tion of  the  vineyard  upon  the  side-hill;  the  soil  of  the  part  situated  upon 
the  table  lands  is  of  good  quality  for  farming  purposes.  The  table  lands 
about  this  vicinity  are  full  of  gentle  swells  or  eminences,  which  are  more 
or  less  gravelly  or  porous  in  the  substratum;  such  places  as  these  have 
generally  been  selected  by  the  judge  for  his  vineyards,  not  that  they  were 
supposed  to  be  more  suited  to  the  vine  than  the  lower  or  more  level  parts, 
but  because  they  were  less  capable  of  sustaining  other  vegetation. 

"  The  first  planting  of  much  extent  was  made  in  1830,  from  vines  of  one 
yenr's  growth,  purchased  of  Col.  Alden  Spooner,  of  Brooklyn,  who  fur- 
nished a  thousand  at  six  cents  apiece;  these  were  planted  upon  the  best 
portion  of  terraced  ground,  which  was  prepared  by  ploughing  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  throw  the  furrows  down  hill,  and  then  finished  by  hand 
labor.  A  part  of  the  terraces  were  made  ten  feet  wide,  but  as  the  opera- 
tion wasi  found  laborious,  the  remaining  ones  were  made  only  eight  feet ; 
no  particular  pains  were  taken  in  forming  banks. 

'*  The  original  surface  being  a  sward,  the  sods  were  placed  on  the  out- 
side of  the  terraces  to  sustain  the  banks.  They  soon  covered  them  with 
gra  s,  which  has  since  needed  no  further  attention  excepting  to  mow  it 
once  or  twice  a  year.  The  vines  were  planted  six  feet  apart,  with  a  locust 
post  between  each,  and  then  four  lines  of  No.  12  wire  were  strained  and 
fastened  firmly  upon  the  posts,  beginning  two  feet  from  the  ground  and 
setting  the  wires  one  foot  apart ;  the  posts,  therefore,  require  to  be  six 
feet  hip-h,  which  is  the  usual  height  throughout  the  vineyard. 

"  The  vines  have  not  been  subjected  to  the  rigid  system  of  pruning 
practised  by  many;  they  were  trained  somewhat  fan-shaped  upon  the 
trellin  and  ratner  slovenly  pruned  for  many  years.  The  plough  was  freely 
used,  seldom  allowing  the  ground  to  get  hard  and  weedy.  This  vineyard 
bore  uniformly  for  many  years,  yielding  great  crops  of  grapes,  which 
coraraanded  a  fair  price  in  market. 

"in  a  few  instances  of  late,  it  has  been  prostrated  for  a  year  or  two 
from  the  effects  of  enormous  bearing.  This  was  the  case  last  year,  but  it 
is  now  loaded  with  fitiit.  The  vines  which  were  placed  upon  the  widest 
terraces  have  been  much  the  most  productive,  showing  that  it  would  have 
paid  better  if  they  had  all  been  of  one  width. 

"  A  few  of  the  vines  purchased  of  Col.  Spooner  were  planted  on  the 
more  level  part  of  the  ground  ;  these  also  succeeded  well,  but  not  so  uni- 
formly as  those  placed  on  the  terraces.    About  the  same  time,  one  hun 


APPENDIX    I.  313 

dred  three  year  old  vines  were  purcha^4ed  at  the  Parmentier  garden  in 
Brooklyn  at  37^  cents  per  vine;  these  were  also  put  upon  the  lower 
grounds,  and  were  six  feet  apart  each  way,  planted  very  deep  and  the 
earth  gradually  filled  in  around  them.  The  subsoil  was  almost  entirely 
composed  of  small  stones  and  gravel  without  a  particle  of  clay,  or  even 
loam,  to  be  seen.  They  grew  rather  slow  at  first,  but  soon  got  established, 
and  are  yet  bearing  full  crops,  failing  however  oftener  than  most  of  the 
vines  planted  at  a  greater  distance  apart.  The  next  portion  were  planted 
near  these  rows  running  north  and  south,  eight  feet  apart  and  six  feet  apart 
in  the  rows ;  these  were  set  out  at  an  ordinary  depth  in  the  ground,  and 
treated  in  the  same  manner  as  the  foregoing,  and  the  vines  have  yielded 
good  fruit  more  uniformly  than  any  pf  the  preceding  onea.  Another  piece 
was  planted  in  the  midst  of  winter,  during  a  season  of  mild  weather,  while 
the  frost  was  out  of  the  ground ;  hardly  a  vine  failed,  and  they  have  borne 
largely  with  few  exceptions. 

'*  The  last  piece,  comprising  about  three  acres,  was  planted  on  a  good 
strong  soil,  not  heavy,  but  sufficiently  loamy  for  most  purposes;  which 
was  previously  occupied  by  locust  timber  grown  from  seed  that  had  been 
80  much  injured  by  the  grub  that  it  was  deemed  good  policy  to  substitute 
a  vineyard. 

"  The  vines  promised  much,  and  have  borne  pretty  well,  but  have  fallen 
ehort  of  anticipations,  owing  perhaps  to  peculiarities  of  the  season,  which 
have  been  marked  for  the  last  few  years.  They  were  set  in  rows  running 
north  and  south  ten  feet  apart,  and  the  vines  eight  feet  apart  in  the  rows 

"  No  difficulty  was  found  in  subduing  *he  locusts ;  a  contract  was  made 
with  a  laborer  to  dig  each  tree  out,  removing  the  soil  and  extracting  the 
entire  root  from  a  circle  of  the  diameter  of  a  cart  wheel.  This  work  was 
performed  in  the  winter  at  a  shilling  a  tree  ;  the  ground  was  then  ploughed 
and  planted  with  corn;  the  following  year  a  line  was  designated  for  each 
row  of  grape  vines ;  the  ground  was  then  ploughed  to  the  width  of  four  or 
five  feet  along  these  rows,  throwing  the  furrows  out  until  a  considerable 
trench  was  found,  while  workmen  followed  with  suitable  tools  and  cut 
away  all  interfering  roots.  This  operation  gave  space  for  the  row  of  grape 
vines  on  clear  ground,  with  but  little  necessity  for  removing  much  earth 
by  hand  for  their  reception  ;  the  remaining  roots  in  the  middle  of  the  rows 
were  soon  got  rid  of  by  the  subsequent  ploughing  after  planting  the  vines. 

"Failures  have  occurred  occasionally,  owing  to  several  causes,  some  of 
which  might  have  been  avoided  ;  among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  rose 
bugs ;  these  came  in  such  quantities,  after  several  years,  as  to  entirely  de- 
stroy the  crops  for  one  year,  before  their  existence  was  hardly  suspected. 
After  this  they  were  caught  by  carrying  small  pans  of  water  along  the 
rows,  and  shaking  them  into  it;  a  gentle  agitation  being  sufficient.  For 
two  or  three  j'ears  they  were  very  troublesome,  and  required  constant 
looking  out  for;  they  were  got  under,  however,  and  little  trouble  hai 


314  APPENDIX  r. 

since  arisen  Itom  that  quarter ;  a  few  yet  linger  around  and  make  their 
appearance  each  year,  but  a  sharp  lookout  is  kept,  and  they  usually  do 
little  damage. 

"Excessive  bearing  is  a  common  cause  of  failure,  perhaps  the  most  gene- 
ral; it  is  one  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  vine  to  set  euormously  with  fruit 
when  strong  and  vigorous  ;  the  tax  upon  its  maturing  such  a  load  often 
produces  complete  prostration ;  sometimes  it  will  show  its  effects  the  first 
year — indeed  this  is  often  observable  in  the  sour,  shrivelled  mass  of  unri- 
pened  fruit. 

"  It  will  frequently  happen  that  the  vines  will  go  on  and  mature  the  pre- 
sent crop,  but  they  are  sometimes  so  completely  prostrated  that  they  re- 
quire two  years  to  get  restored.  Pruning  thoroughly  in  the  winter,  rub- 
bing off  all  superabundant  shoots,  and  cutting  off  a  large  portion  of  the 
clusters  of  fruit  in  the  summer,  are  the  proper  remedies. 

"  Excessive  rains  during  the  months  of  May  and  June  have  been  more 
destructive  than  any  other  cause,  especially  when  accompanied  with 
unusually  cold  weather  about  the  time  of  blossoming  and  setting.  Two 
years  nearly  the  whole  vineyard  failed  from  this  cause  ;  all  over  the  most 
retentive  and  best  portions  of  ground,  the  young  shoots  that  were  about 
putting  forth  blossoms,  turned  black  and  sour  within  a  few  days  after  one 
of  these  heavy  rains,  and  the  crop,  which  until  that  time  promised  to  be 
a  fair  one,  was  ruined,  leaving  a  small  yield  upon  the  highest  knolls. 

"  Another  cause  of  partial  failure  is,  perhaps,  not  so  obvious,  yet  not 
less  sure  in  its  effects;  we  allude  to  certain  peculiarities  in  the  atmos- 
phere during  some  seasons,  which  seem  to  be  very  uncongenial  to  the 
growth  and  maturing  of  our  best  fruits ;  probably  these  effects  are  felt 
more  or  less  all  along  the  Atlantic  coast.  They  have  forced  us  to 
abandon  the  culture  of  the  old  Virgalieu  Pear,  and  the  White  Chasselas, 
and  other  hardy  foreign  grapes,  while  all  began  to  feel  its  influence  here 
at  the  same  time,  and  it  has  nearly  vetoed  the  Newtown  Pippin,  and  many 
other  apple-trees  are  exhibiting  like  effects  in  a  less  degree.  The  indica- 
tions are  the  same  upon  both  pears  and  apples;  they  exhibit  a  rusty 
coat,  cracked  open,  and  are  hard  and  bitter  where  these  black  spots 
exist.  On  the  Newtown  Pippin  they  are  more  obvious  on  the  northeast 
side  of  the  tree,  the  fruit  often  being  quite  fair  on  the  southwest  side, 
while  on  the  opposite  side  it  is  nearly  worthless. 

"The  judge  states  that  whenever  a  Newtown  Pippin  bears  a  crop  of 
good  fruit — which  it  does  occasionally — his  vineyard  yields  a  large  crop, 
Buch  being  the  case  this  year.  The  trees  are  growing  in  various  places 
among  the  vines,  and  are  full  of  fine-looking  apples — everything  in  the 
Bhp.pe  of  an  apple  seems  to  be  fully  developing,  and  so  of  the  vines.  And 
vice  versa,  whenever  the  fruit  fails  of  wholly  maturing  on  these  trees,  there 
is  a  very  marked,  tardy  and  imperfect  development  of  the  dusters  of 
grapes ;  latterly  these  coincidences  have  been  very  decided.    The  judge 


APPENDIX   I.  315 

has  resorted  to  training  on  arbors,  whicli,  he  thinKs,  if  properly  managed, 
is  by  far  the  most  certain  mode  of  obtaining  fine  fruit,  as  there  is  much 
protection  effected  from  the  cold  winds  by  the  overshadowing  leaves,  for 
the  Iruit  always  hangs  underneath. 

"He  thinks  eight  feet  not  suflBciently  far  apart  for  the  vines,  and  has 
removed  several  hundred,  leaving  a  space  of  sixteen  feet  between  the 
vines,  with  a  design  to  train  horizontally  along  the  trellis.  This  mode 
fully  answers  his  expectations ;  it  gives  fine  fruit,  and  it  will  fully  equal 
the  others  in  quantity  after  one  year. 

There  is  scarcely  any  limit  to  the  capabilities  of  a  vine,  the  roots 
always  keeping  pace  with  the  top.  When  they  are  dwarfed  by  constant 
pruning,  the  roots  are  circumscribed  in  proportion,  and  consequently 
draw  their  supplies  from  comparatively  small  space  ;  in  severe  drought 
such  vines  feel  its  effects  very  sensibly.  The  judge  says  this  idea  was 
very  much  impressed  upon  him  in  observing  tne  roots  of  the  vines  re- 
moved in  his  vineyard,  while  at  the  same  time  some  large  bearing  vines 
of  the  same  age,  growing  on  trees  where  full  scope  was  allowed,  had 
roots  of  twice  the  size  and  length. 

'■  The  stock  of  young  vines  for  planting  for  the  last  20  years  has  been 
raised  from  cuttings  taken  from  the  vineyard. 

"No.  12  Pennsylvania  wire  is  used;  and  we  noticed  that  instead  oi 
being  fastened  on  to  the  posts  with  staples  or  nails  in  the  usual  manner,  a 
cut  is  made  with  a  small  saw,  and  a  turn  taken  around  the  post  with  the 
wire,  drawing  it  up  as  snugly  as  possible  into  the  cut;  the  wire  requires 
forcing  in  a  little  with  the  hammer. 

"  The  first  part  of  the  vineyard  has  had  no  new  wire  yet,  except  when 
from  accident  the  old  was  broken  and  required  repairing.  It  looks  as 
though  it  might  last  ten  years  longer.  Smaller  wires  have  been  used, 
but  they  do  not  answer  as  well.  If  any  change  was  made,  it  should  be 
for  the  size  larger. 

"The  judge  uses  the  common  manures  collected  about  the  farm-yard, 
applying  them  in  moderate  quantities  as  best  suits  his  convenience — chips 
from  the  wood-pile,  and  even  shingle  shavings,  have  been  applied  in  large 
quantities  during  the  prevalence  of  severe  drought,  with  beneficial  results, 
which  have  extended  to  subsequent  seasons. 

"He  is  now  cultivating  the  Catawba,  but  not  very  extensively,  and 
does  not  consider  it  quite  so  certain  in  maturing,  and  fluids  it  more  dififi* 
cult  to  propagate. 

"  Eight  or  ten  more  native  varieties  are  now  under  trial." 


10  APPEOT)IX   I. 


VINEYARD  0¥  C.  McKAY,  NEAR  CANANDAIGUA,  K  Y. 
From  the  Horticulturist. 

"  Some  time  ago,  you  may  remember,  you  invited  me  to  communicate  to 
you  such  facts  for  publication  as  I  might  have  met  with  in  grape  culture 
that  would  be  likely  to  be  of  interest  to  the  public. 

"I  had  then  recently  planted  one  acre  of  Isabella  grape  vines,  pretty 
nearly  after  the  manner  you  had  advised  in  the  columns  of  the  '  Genesee 
Farmer.' 

"  The  piece  of  ground  planted  is  twenty  rods  in  length  by  eight  in 
width,  and  was  planted  five  years  ago  last  spring,  in  the  following  man- 
ner :  About  the  first  of  May  I  gave  the  land,  which  is  gravell}^  loam,  a  very 
deep  ploughing — as  deep  as  possible  without  the  aid  of  a  subsoil  plough. 
I  then  measured  it  off  into  eight  strips,  or  lands  running  lengthwise,  their 
direction  being  from  north  to  south.  15  degrees  east,  and  ploughed  these 
lands  separately — leaving  the  dead  furrow  in  the  centre  of  each,  desig- 
nating the  places  for  the  rows — Itreaking  up  the  yellow  subsoil  by 
repeated  ploughing,  through  the  centre  of  each  to  the  depth  of  nearly 
two  feet.  I  then  went  into  these  trenches  with  a  stout  team  and  scraper 
and  excavated  holes  a  rod  apart  still  deeper  than  I  had  ploughed,  about 
six  feet  wide  and  eight  in  length,  leaving  the  subsoil  taken  from  them  in 
the  intervening  spaces. 

"  All  this  time  I  had  my  eye  upon  a  drove  of  cattle  (some  eighty 
head),  which  had  died  in  this  town  the  previous  March  and  April,  while 
performing  a  pilgrimage  from  the  far  West  to  the  New  York  market. 
These  I  procured  of  the  proprietor,  and  had  them  cut  into  pieces  of  con- 
venient size,  and  hauled  to  the  field  and  placed  in  the  holes  prepared  for 
their  reception.  There  being  one  hundred  and  sixty  holes,  a  half  of  a 
carcass  was  placed  in  each.  This  being  done,  the  holes  were  filled  about 
half  full  of  good  surface  soil ;  upon  this  I  distributed  as  equally  as  pos- 
sible among  all  the  holes,  sixteen  heavy  loads  of  decaj'ed  leather  sha- 
vings, from  a  currier's  shop,  the  accumulation,  as  I  was  informed,  of  about 
twenty  years.  A  sufficient  quantity  of  surface  soil  was  thrown  upon 
these,  and  thoroughly  incorporated  with  them,  to  fill  the  holes  rather 
more  than  level  with  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Now  about  a  bushel  of 
well  rotted  stable  manure,  taken  from  under  a  stable,  well  mixed  with 


APPENDIX    I.  317 

about  the  same  quantity  of  charcoal  dust,  from  an  ohl  coal  pit,  -was 
spaded  into  each  place  designated  for  the  reception  of  a  vine. 

"  1  then  procured  of  Elwanger  and  Barry,  good  strong  two  year  old 
vines,  with  which  I  planted  one  half  of  this  ground  ;  and  the  other  half  I 
planted  with  layers  of  the  previous  year's  growth,  without  a  particle  of 
top  to  any  of  them — each  consisting  simply  of  a  short  section  of  a  vine 
of  the  previous  year's  growth,  with  one  bud  and  a  few  small  roots 
attached  to  it. 

'•  These  vines  have  had  no  other  manuring  since  they  were  thus  planted, 
excepting  about  two  bushels  of  leached  ashes  forked  in  around  each  vine 
last  season,  and  about  one  quart  of  plaster  applied  to  each  the  season 
before.  They  are  trained  on  trellises  running  from  north  to  south,  eight 
feet  high,  made  of  chestnut  posts  (for  want  of  cedar),  five  inches  square 
at  the  bottom,  and  two  and  a  half  by  five  inches  at  the  top,  set  eight  and 
a  quarter  feet  apart,  with  strips  of  one  and  a  half  inch  stuff,  two  and  a 
half  inches  wide,  nailed  from  post  to  post,  eighteen  inches  above  the 
ground,  and  at  the  top  of  the  posts.  Between  these,  three  tiers  of  No. 
14  u'on  wire  are  drawn,  dividing  the  space  equally  between  the  wooden 
strips,  and  secured  to  each  post. 

"  These  trellises  are  now  completely  filled  with  good,  strong,  bearing 
wood  ready  for  use  next  season,  much  of  w'hich  is  over  three  quarters  of 
an  inch  in  diameter,  and  large  portions  of  it  are  now  apparently  ripe.  I 
allowed  these  vines  to  bear  only  about  seven  pounds  each,  last  season; 
though  they  were  set  for  full  three  times  that  quantity.  I  rubbed  off 
every  alternate  bud  on  all  the  vines  last  season ;  and  after  they  wei-e 
set  for  fruit,  I  took  off  half  of  it.  My  fruit  was  mainly  sold  to  dealers  in 
Elmira,  and  retailed  by  them  at  fourteen  cents  per  pound,  by  the  side  of 
Isabella  grapes,  cultivated  near  Penn  Yan,  at  twelve  and  a  half  cents. 
One  dealer,  Mr.  H.  H.  Richards,  afterward  informed  me  that  he  sold 
fifty-three  pounds  of  my  grapes  in  one  evening  at  fourteen  cents,  and 
but  three  pounds  of  the  shilling  grapes.  Do  you  suppose  those  dead  car- 
casses had  anything  to  do  with  this  ?    I  do. 

"  Last  spring,  before  these  vines  commenced  their  growth,  I  measured 
some  twenty-five  or  thirty  of  them,  taking  them  'as  they  run,'  and  I 
found  but  very  few  of  them  to  measure  only  ten  inches  in  circumference. 
Nearly  all  measured  over  a  foot  around  the  body,  several  of.  them  fifteen 
inches,  and  one  seventeen  inches.  But  why  did  not  those  dead  cattle  and 
leather  shavings  kill  them  ?  Surely  it  is  a  marvel  that  they  did  not ;  for  I 
have  repeatedly  dug  down  to  the  bones  within  the  past  two  years,  and 
have  always  found  them  completely  surrounded  with  a  net-work  of  living 
fibrous  grape  roots — not  dead  ones!  I  am  allowing  these  vines  to  bear 
this  season  just  half  of  what  they  set  for, -after  a  severe  autumnal  prun- 
ing ;  and  I  estimate  the  present  crop  at  3,200  pounds,  or  20  pounds  to  the 

13* 


318  APPENDIX    L 

vine,  notwithstanding  the  hail  storm  on  the  4tii  of  July  destroyed  at  least 
1.000  pounds. 

"  My  grapes  last  season  commenced  making  their  first  turn  on  the  1st 
day  of  September,  and  the  entire  crop  was  ripe  before  the  30th.  This 
season  they  commenced  turning  red  on  the  20th  of  August,  and  at  this 
time  (September  7th)  more  than  1,000  pounds  are  making  the  second 
turn.  In  fact,  I  have  seen  Isabella  grapes  offered  for  sale  in  Rochester,  in 
the  month  of  October,  not  as  ripe  as  these  are. 

"  I  will  not  say  positively  that  my  fruit  is  equal  in  flavor  to  that  pro- 
duced by  more  seemly  fertilizing  materials,  for  that  would  hardly  seem 
possible  ;  but  I  will  send  you  a  sample  of  it  as  soon  as  I  consider  it  ripe, 
that  you  may  have  an  opportunity  to  judge  for  yourself.  One  thing  I 
have  remarked  in  regard  to  these  vines;  no  insects  of  any  sort  have  dis- 
turbed them,  except  that  three  or  four  of  the  vines,  the  year  they  were 
planted,  were  dug  out  by  dogs  in  their  nocturnal  attempts  at  a  premature 
resurrection  of  those  dead  carcasses  !  Mildew  has  never  affected  them, 
although,  from  their  remarkable  luxuriance  of  growth,  I  have  expected  to 
encounter  much  trouble  from  this  most  patience-trying  scourge  of  the 
vineyard. 

"  I  have  adopted  the  plan  this  season  of  mulching  my  vines  with  spent 
tan.  I  applied  it  early  in  July,  having  kept  the  vines  thoroughly  culti- 
vated previously  ;  I  shall  cover  the  entire  vineyard  with  it  next  season 
about  one  inch  deep.  I  have  alwaj^s  ploughed  between  the  rows  to  the 
depth  of  five  or  six  inches,  to  within  a  foot  of  the  vines.  To  enable  me 
to  do  this  without  disturbing  the  roots,  I  have  practised  pruning  off  all  the 
lateral  surface  roots,  to  the  depth  of  five  or  six  inches,  thus  throwing  the 
vines,  to  use  a  familiar  phrase,  upon  their  '  taps.'  To  this  practice,  I 
believe,  ought  to  be  attributed  anj'  exemption  from  mildew,  far  more 
than  to  any  or  all  things  else.  I  observed  this  same  practice  prevailed 
in  Dr.  Underhill's  vineyards  at  Croton  Point,  though  I  am  not  aware  that 
the  doctor  has  ever  given  the  fact  to  the  public.  If  he  has  not,  of  course 
it  is  because  he  forgot  to  do  so  ;  or  he  may  have  thought  it  would  not  be 
of  much  interest  to  the  other  cultivators  of  the  grape.  One  fact  is  wor- 
thy of  note :  Dr.  Underbill  has  experienced  no  difficulty  from  mildew  for 
quite  a  number  of  years  past,  and  his  vines  are  very  old  ;  whereas  when 
his  vines  were  young,  he  says  he  was  much  troubled  with  its  presence. 
Now,  all  who  know  anything  about  grape  culture,  well  know  that  old 
vines,  with  ordinary  culture,  are  far  more  subject  to  this  difficulty  than 
yoimg  ones.  To  my  mind,  this  proves  that  the  doctor  is  older  than  he 
once  was,  as  well  as  his  vines,  and  that  he  has  not  grown  old  to  no  pur- 
pose. 

"In  conclusion  of  this  already  too  long  article  let  me  say:  if  you  do 
not  like  the  samples  of  grapes  sent,  suppress  this  account  of  their  origin 


APPENDIX    I.  31  J) 

and  culture,  for  they  are  the  argument  I  must  rely  upon  in  defence  of  my 
mode  of  grape  culture.  If  this  argument  fails  to  produce  conviction,  I 
will  yield  the  point;  but  if  you  like  them  you  may  give  me  a  hearing  in 
the  columns  of  the  'Horticulturist,'  if  you  choose  to  do  so,  that  others 
may  learn  by  what  strange  means  good  fruit  may  be  produced,  In  Rpite 
of  the  abuse  so  profusely  heaped  upon  'dead  carcasses '  by  those  who 
never  take  the  trouble  to  give  them  a  patient  trial." 


APPENDIX   II. 


CULTIVATION  OF  THE  VINE  UPOIST  TRELLISES  (EN" 
TREILLE)  m  NORTHERN  AND  CENTRAL  FRANCE, 
ACCORDING  TO  THE  NEAY  METHODS  IN  USE  AT 
THOMERY.* 

The  table  grape  cultivated  in  the  open  air  acquires  often  in 
Central,  and  with  greater  reason  in  Northern  France,  only  an 
imperfect  maturity  and  mediocre  quality,  for  want  of  proper 
and  sufficiently  prolonged  heat  during  the  summer.  The  vine 
starts  with  vigor,  but  its  growth  is  too  much  prolonged,  and 
the  ripening  is  not  completed  by  the  first  cold  weather  of  the 
autumn ;  for  it  is  only  when  the  sap  channels  cease  to  feed  the 
clusters  that  the  grape  begins  to  ripen.  This  prolonged  vegeta- 
tion is  also  the  reason  why  the  shoots  are  but  imperfectly 
formed,  or  matured  by  the  August  heat,  and  why  the  vintage 
of  the  next  year  is  less  abundant.  To  avoid  this  cause  of  fail- 
ure, the  vine  is  disposed  in  the  form  of  a  trellis,  upon  walls 
placed  so  as  to  enjoy  the  best  exposure,  and  soils  are  chosen  of 
a  light  or  medium  nature,  which  are  easily  drained  and 
warmed ;  lastly  a  series  of  operations  is  applied  to  the  vine, 
the  result  of  which  is  to  maintain  it  in  a  state  of  moderate 
vigor,  and  above  all  to  diminish  the  period  of  its  yearly  vege- 
tation. The  trellis  of  the  Chateau  of  Fontainebleau  was  the 
first  which,  in  its  culture,  taken  as  a  whole,  best  fulfilled  the 

*  The  first  trellises  at  Thomery  were  established  about  120  years  ago  by  a  culti- 
vator named  Charmeux,  grandfather  of  the  present  JNI.  Baptiste  Rose  Charmeux. 
He  built  the  first  wall  for  the  purpose,  leaving  in  the  centre,  according  to  a  condi- 
tion impoBed  upon  him,  a  gate  for  the  passage  of  the  chase. 


APPENDIX    IV  O^l 

conditions  which  we  have  just  indicated,  and  it  has  been 
chosen  for  a  model  by  all  the  authors  who  have  written 
upon  the  cultivation  of  the  vine  en  esjJaUer.  This  trel- 
lis, 1,500  yards  in  length,  was  put  up  nearly  a  century  ago, 
and  was  restored  about  the  year  1809  under  the  direction  of 
Monsieur  Lelieur.  But  long  before  the  last  named  period,  the 
inhabitants  of  Thomery,  a  village  live  miles  distant  from  Fon- 
tainebleau,  were  adopting  entirely  this  method  of  culture.  They 
found  in  it  so  much  advantage  that  they  hnished  by  covering 
with  walls  intended  for  the  vine  the  greatest  part  of  the  terri 
tory  of  the  Commune. 

This  culture  at  the  present  time  extends  over  more  than 
8  200  acres,  and  produces  on  an  average  a  million  kilogrammes 
of  o-rapes.  It  is  the  delicious  produce  of  these  trellises  which 
are  sold  at  Paris  under  the  name  of  Chasselas  de  Fontainebleau, 
Fi"-.  68.    Encouraged  by  their  success,  these  intelligent  husband 


14* 


Fig.  66. 


322 


APPENDIX    II. 


men  have  continued  to  perfect  their  processes,  and  the  greater 
part  of  their  trellises  are  at  the  present  time  arranged  and  main- 
tained much  better  than  those  of  Fontainebleau.  The  reader, 
however,  would  be  in  error  should  he  believe  that  the  success 
of  this  method  at  Thomery  is  due  to  the  soil,  to  the  climate,  or 
to  the  exposure  of  ihis  locality  being  particularly  suitable  to 
the  vine.  The  soil  through  most  of  the  commune  is  of  a  clayey 
nature,  and  retains  a  slight  dampness  unfavorable  to  the  quality 
of  the  grape.  The  ground  is  generally  inclined  to  the  north- 
east, and,  lastly,  the  neighborhood  of  the  forest,  by  wliich  the 
commune  is  surrounded  on  one  side,  and  that  of  the  Sjine,  by 
which  it  is  bounded  on  the  other,  maintain  a  humid  atm  )5plere 
very  injurious  to  the  vine. 

It  is  chieliy  to  the  skill  of  the  cultivators  that  we  must 
attribute  such  happy  results.  We  shall,  therefore,  describe  the 
mode  of  culture  practised  by  them,  and  recommend  it  for  the 
climate  of  the  centre  and  the  north  of  France. 

FoKM  TO  BE  GivEX  TO  THE  Teellises. — The  form  the  most 
commonly  adopted  until  quite  lately  has  been  that  of  a  simple 


Fig.  69. 

horizontal  branch  (en  cordon  horizontal  simple)^  Fig.  69.     It  is 
the  best  form  for  allowing  the  action  of  the  sap  to  spread 


APPENDIX   II. 


323 


equally  toward  all  points  of  the  plant,  and  at  the  same  timo 
it  occupies  without  loss  of  space  all  the  surface  of  the  wall. 
But  these  cordons,  or  arms,  must  be  subjected  to  certain  con- 
ditions. 

First.  The  two  arms  should  present  exactly  the  same  length, 
or  else  it  will  be  seen  that  the  longer  arm  will  absorb  the 
greater  part  of  the  sap  and  soon  destroy  the  shorter.  More- 
over, the  shoots  which  these  arms  bear  should  spring  only 
from'  the  upper  surface  and  at  regular  intervals  of  from  seven 
to  eight  inches. 

Second.  The  entire  length  of  the  arms  developed  by  the  same 
stock  should  not  pass  certain  limits,  for  if  they  are  permitted, 
as  is  often  the  case,  to  attain  a  length  of  from  32  to  48  feet, 
the  sap  tends  principally  toward  the  extremities,  the  shoots 
growing  upon  these  points  are  too  vigorous,  while  those  nearer 
the  origin  of  the  arms  become  feeble  and  finally  wither.  It  is 
much  more  profitable  to  increase  the  number  of  stocky  against 
the  walls,  and  to  concentrate  the  action  of  the  sap  in  a  less  extent 
of  branches.  In  light  soils  and  to  varieties  of  ordinary  strength, 
an  average  length  of  52  inches  is  given  to  each  one  of  the  arms 
(or  cordons)  of  the  same  stock.  This,  in  very  fertile  soils,  may 
be  increased  to  66  inches.  With  respect  to  very  hardy  varie- 
ties, as  the  Frankenthal,  a  length  of  from  V8  to  97  inches  is 
allo'wed.     That  adopted  at  Thomery  is  commonly  93  inches. 

Third.  The  same  stock  should  not  bear  many  cordons  one 
above  the  other,  for  the  sap  tending  principally  to  the  upper 
cordons,  those  beneath  will  remain  weak. 

Fourth.  In  many  gardens  may  yet  be  seen  vines  fixed  to  the 
upper  part  of  walls  against  which  are  trained  different  sorts  of 
fruit  trees.  This  is  a  very  bad  arrangement.  If  the  cordon  is 
placed  in  the  most  favorable  condition  for  ripening  the  grape, 
that  is  19  inches  lower  than  the  coping  of  the  wall,  the  foliage 
of  the  vine  shadows  the  trees  trained  below  and  condemns  from 
11  to  15  inches  of  their  tops  to  complete  sterility.  Moreover, 
they  deprive  these  trees  of  the  influence  of  the  rains  and  dews 
of  summer.  If,  in  order  to  avoid  these  inconveniences,  the 
cordon  is  placed  above  the  coping  of  the  wall,  it  is  only  with 


324  APPENDIX    II. 

great  diflBcultj  that  the  clusters,  no  longer  protected,  arrive  at 
maturity.  It  is  better,  then,  entirely  to  abandon  this  arrange- 
ment, to  devote  a  certain  space  of  wall  to  the  vine,  and  to  pro- 
ceed in  such  a  manner  that  this  shall  be  entirely  covered.  This 
is  what  has  been  done  for  the  trellis  of  Fontaiaebleau,  and  those 
of  Thomery,  by  means  of  the  following  forms. 

HoEizoNTAL  CoEDOx  OF  Thomeey.  Fig.  TO. — Each  vine- 
stock  taken  by  itself  presents  exactly  the  arrangement  of 
the  simple  horizontal  cordon.  That  which  constitutes  the 
Thomery  system  is  the  position  of  the  cordons  with  regard 
to  each  other.  The  wall  is  covered  from  summit  to  base  with 
cordons  of  the  same  length  placed  one  over  the  other,  and  sup- 
plied by  vine  stocks  planted  at  regular  distances. 

To  construct  this  trellis  we  first  determine  the  distance  to  be 
preserved  between  each  cordon.  As  the  space  is  to  be  filled  by 
shoots  which  spring  from  the  upper  surface  of  the  cordons,  it 
should  Ije  such  that  the  shoots  may  reach  a  development  sutfi- 
cient  to  maintain  the  requisite  degree  of  strength  in  the  vine, 
without,  however,  passing  the  upper  cordon,  for  it  would,  in 
that  case,  be  shaded  too  much.  Experience  has  shown  that  a 
distance  of  from  17  to  20  inches  is,  in  the  greater  number  of 
cases,  sufficient,  and  that  to  this  height  the  shoots  may  be 
deprived  of  their  buds  without  diminishing  the  strength  of  the 
vine.  This  distance,  may,  however,  be  augmented  for  very 
hardy  varieties  in  very  fertile  soils  by  from  4  to  6  inches. 
Monsieur  Felix  Malot  has  established  at  Montreuil  a  trellis,  the 
cordons  of  which  being  placed  at  a  distance  of  only  15  inches 
from  each  other,  render  it  necessary  to  stop  the  shoots  as  soon 
as  they  have  attained  that  length.  The  sap  from  the  roots 
being  concentrated  in  a  smaller  space,  he  obtains,  in  general, 
larger  bunches ;  but  this  detracts  from  the  strength  of  the  vine 
and  the  duration  of  the  trellis,  and  the  growth  of  the  grapes 
occupying  a  longer  period,  they  do  not  ripen  so  well.  The  cul- 
tivators of  Thomery  prefer  smaller  bunches  more  equally  ripened. 
It  will  next  be  proper  to  decide  the  height  of  the  wall,  that  we 
may  know  the  number  of  cordons  to  be  erected.  Supposing 
that,  like  almost  all  those  of  Thomery,  this  wall  is  8t^  feet  in 


APPENDIX   ir. 


325 


Fig.  70. 


326  APPENDIX   II. 

height,*  bj  dividing  this  number  by  17  inches  (the  distance  of 
the  cordons  from  each  other),  we  obtain  just  six  inches.  Tho 
first  cordon  being  established  at  15  inches  from  the  ground, 
we  shall  then  be  able  to  place  upon  our  wall  five  cordons. 

As  to  the  distance  to  be  preserved  between  the  stocks,  that 
is  necessarily  determined — first,  by  the  length  to  which  the 
two  arms  are  to  be  allowed  to  grow  ;  aud  secondly,  by  the 
number  of  cordons  one  above  the  other.  Let  us  suppose  this 
number  to  be  five,  and  the  total  lengtlm^f  the  two  arms  to  be 
8  ft.  10  in.  To  know  the  distance  sought,  divide  the  total  length 
by  the  number  of  cordons:  we  obtain  2t).12  inches,  which  we 
have  adopted  for  our  figure.  At  Thomery,  where  the  cordons 
have  only  a  length  of  88.8  inches;  the  stocks  are  planted  at 
inter-^als  of  seventeen  inches.  It  might  happen  that  the  wall 
for  the  trellis  might  be  less  than  8^  feet  in  height,  and  that. the 
number  of  cordons  being  reduced  from  five  to  three,  the  dis- 
tance between  the  stocks  will  then  be  33.99  inches.  But  an 
interval  so  great  exposes  the  trellis  to  a  degree  of  growth 
prejudicial  to  the  ripening  of  the  grape ;  in  that  case  it 
would  be  better  to  diminish  the  length  of  the  cordons  from  8^ 
to  5.87  feet,  and  the  distance  between  the  stocks  will  then  be 
19.76  inches.  It  may  also  be  that  the  wall  will  be  more  than 
8^  feet  in  height,  and  in  order  to  increase  the  number  of  cor- 
dons it  becomes  necessary  to  place  the  stock  at  less  than  20.12 
inches;  for  example,  to  9.88  inrhes  if  ihe  wall  afi^ords  space 
for  ten  cordons.  Should  this  distance  be  too  small  to  allow  the 
roots  to  draw  from  the  earth  the  sustenance  necessary  for  the 
support  of  ten  cordons,  in  order  to  remedy  this  inconvenience 
the  length  of  the  cordons  is  slightly  increased  for  a  trellis  of 
ten  cordons  to  from  103.08  inches  to  62  inches,  the  stocks 
remaining  at  the  distance  of  15  inches  from  each  other.  How- 
ever, as  this  increased  length  of  the  cordons  has  an  unfavorable 

*  M.  Du  Breuil  has  had  his  drawings  made  to  an  accurate  scale,  but  although 
our  figures  are  exact  transfers  from  his  cuts,  the  relations  of  the  French  and 
English  measures  is  such  as  to  preclude  our  giving  a  useful  scale  in  English  feet. 
The  same  reason  has  obliged  us  to  introduce  numerous  fractions — a  feature  which 
me  did  not  feel  at  liberty  to  avoid  by  violating  the  accuracy  of  the  translation. 


APrEXDix  n. 


5>9 


27 


influence  over  the  vigor  of  tlie  branches  and  the  quality  of  their 
products,  we  recommend  in  preference  that  the  following  pro- 
cess be  employed. 

It  consists  in  planting  on  the  side  of  tlie  wall  which  is  to 


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Fig.  71. 

receive  the  trellis  only  the  number  of  stocks  sufficient  to  form 
five  cordons,  at  the  most.  As  to  the  other  five  cordons, 
if  the  height  of  the  wall  requires  ten,  they  should  be  established 
by  means  of  stocks  planted  on  the  other  side  of  the  wall,  and 
which  may  pass  to  the  front  through  holes  pierced  in  the  wall 
at  each  point  where  a  cordon  is  desired  (Fig.  71).  When  the  vines 
have  grown  through  the  wall,  the  opening  should  be  closed  with 
clay  in  order  to  avoid  injurious  currents  of  air.  The  cordons 
formed  in  this  manner  are  preferred  by  the  cultivators  of  Tho- 
mery  for  the  lower  cordons  of  the  trellis.  They  have  remarked 
that  the  vines  planted  on  the  shady  side  of  the  wall  present  a 
stronger  growth  than  the  others,  doubtless  because  the  soil  is 
less  dried  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and  that  the  greater  part  of 
their  stems  escapes  the  action  of  the  solar  rays.  Should  these 
vines  form  the  upper  cordons,  the  size  and  abundance  of  tlieir 
leaves  would  injure  those  below.  In  placing  them,  on  the  con- 
trary, on  the  lower  part  of  the  trellis,  their  too  great  growth 
is  diminished,  and  their  clusters  nearer  the  ground  are  subject 
to  a  more  elevated  temperature,  by  which  their  ripening  is 
hastened. 

This  ingenious  method  may  also  be  used  for  trellises  composed 
of  five  cordons,   but  which  are   placed  in  a  soil  so  dry  and 


328  APPENDIX    II. 

scorclied  that  the  distance  of  20  inches  between  the  stocks  is 
not  sufficient  to  allow  the  roots  to  gather  from  the  earth  the 
nourishment  required.  This  distance  must  then  be  increased, 
without  however  augmenting  the  length  of  the  cordons. 

When  the  position  to  be  given  to  the  cordons  is  properly  de- 
termined, the  plan  of  their  arrangement  is  traced  upon  the  wall. 
Begin  bj  indicating  at  the  foot  of  the  wall  from  a  to  J  (Fig.  70) 
the  point  from  which  each  shoot  should  spring,  and  from  that 
point  draw  a  vertical  line. 

At  the  point  a,  this  vertical  line  ceases  at  the  height  of  the 
first  cordon  at  15  inches  from  the  soil ;  at  the  point  b,  33.08 
inches ;  at  the  point  o,  at  50  inches,  and  as  far  as  the  point  e, 
where  the  line  of  the  first  cordon  ceases  at  86  inches  from  the 
soil.  From  thence  a  second  series  of  lines  is  commenced  simi- 
lar to  the  first,  and  we  proceed  in  this  manner  to  the  end  of  the 
wall.  It  then  only  remains  to  trace,  touching  the  top  of  each 
vertical  line,  the  course  to  be  taken  by  the  cordons  fi'om 
right  to  left,  and  to  indicate  where  each  of  them  is  to  cease — 
that  is  to  say,  at  52  inches  from  each  side  of  the  main  stalk. 
After  the  conclusion  of  this  operation,  the  vines  are  planted  in 
the  manner  which  we  intend  to  describe. 

Horizontal  Cordox  of  Oharmeux  (Fig.  72). —The  arrange- 
ment which  we  have  just  explained  is  that  which  was  at  first 
generally  adopted  for  the  Thomery  vines,  and  is^that  which  is 
still  employed  f  »r  the  trellis  of  Fontainebleau.  But  it  was  not 
long  before  the  cultivators  of  Thomery  remarked  that  this 
method  presented  an  important  inconvenience.  During  the 
f  )rmation  of  the  cordons,  an  entire  arm  of  each  stock  is  shaded 
by  the  upper  cordon,  while  the  greater  part  of  the  opposite  arm 
escapes  this  unfavorable  influence.  The  result  is  an  inequality 
of  growth  between  these  two  arms,  and  it  becomes  necessary  to 
employ  certain  processes,  often  unavailing,  to  maintain  a  pro- 
per equilibrium  of  growth  between  the  two  arms  from  the 
main  stalk.  To  obviate  this  difficulty,  in  1828,  M.  Charmeux, 
senior,  invented  a  new  description  of  horizontal  cordoti,  which 
has  been  adopted  by  almost  all  the  cultivators  of  Thomery  for  the 
trellises  which  they  have  since  erected.     The  plan  is  as  (oilows: 


APPENDIX   II. 


329 


Ooi)  APPENDIX   n. 

The  distance  between  the  superposed  cordons,  the  length 
of  the  latter,  and  the  distance  between  the  stocks,  is  the 
same  as  in  that  of  the  horizontal  cordon  of  Thomerj.  The 
Charmeux  cordon  differs  only  in  the  order  in  which  the 
stalks  successively  put  forth  the  cordons  forming  the  trel- 
lis. Thus,  in  the  Thomerj  cordon,  the  first  stalk  (a,  Fig.  70), 
produces  the  first  lower  cordon ;  the  second  stalk  (b)  the 
second  cordon,  and  tlius  to  the  highest  cordon  of  all,  in  such 
a  fashion  that  the  whole  number  of  stalks  form,  from  one 
extremity  of  the  trellis  to  the  other,  a  succession  of  distinct 
steps.  On  the  contrary,  in  the  cordon  of  Charmeux,  (Fig.  72), 
the  first  stalk  (a)  furnishes  the  first  cordon,  the  second  (b)  the 
fourth,  the  third  (o)  the  second,  ihQ  fifth  (e)  the  third,  to  com- 
mence again  by  the  first  cordon,  and  continue  in  the  same  man- 
ner to  the  end  of  the  trellis. 

The  design  of  this  trellis  upon  th©  wall  is  made  as  easily  as 
for  the  preceding  arrangement. 

The  desired  purpose  of  this  contrivance  is  completely  attained. 
Kot  only  the  cordons  are  not  unequally  shaded,  during  the  first 
years  of  their  growth,  but  they  completely  escape  this  influence 
until  the  age  of  about  five  years.  If  then  they  are  subjected  to 
this  shade,  it  is  equal  for  both  arms,  and  is  brought  first  to  bear 
upon  the  ends  of  each  cordon  in  such  a  manner  as  to  moderate 
their  growth  to  the  advantage  of  the  bearing  shoots  nearest  to 
the  main  stalk. 

Vertical  Cordon. — This  disposition,  to  which,  absurdly 
enough,  the  name  of  "  palmette"  has  been  given,  has  been  applied 
to  the  trellises  of  Fontainebleau  to  a  small  extent  for  about  forty 
years,  and  ten  years  later  to  some  trellises  at  Thomery.  The  fol- 
lowing is  the  principle.  The  vines,  planted  39,37  inches  apart, 
are  allowed  to  develop  a  single  stalk,  which  rises  vertically  to 
the  top  of  the  wall.  This  stalk  presents  on  each  side  a  series 
of  branches  irregularly  disposed.  The  shoots  annually  developed 
from  these  are  trained  obliquely  in  the  space  by  which  each 
main  stalk  is  separated. 

This  system  of  is  susceptible  many  improvements.  It  is 
evident,  for  example,  tha.t  the  interval  of  one  metre  (39^  inches) 


APPENDIX    ir. 


881 


which  separates  each  main  stalk,  is  too  great  when  the  shoots 
are  trained  obliquely  and  not  perpendicularly  from  the  main 
stalk  upon  which  they  grow,  as  is  the  case  in  the  trellis  of 
which  we  have  spoken.     Moreover,  the  irregularity  with  which 


Fig.  T3. 

the  branches  are  distributed  upon  the  stalk  causes  an  unequal 
distribution  of  sap,  and  its  determination  to  certain  points,  whe- 
ther of  superabundance  or  scarcity,  resulting  in  the  destruction 
of  the  shoots  less  favorably  situated. 

Vertical  Cordon  with  alternate  Shoots  (Fig.  73). — M. 
Rose  Charmeux  has  brought  this  new  arrangement  to  perfec- 
tion in  the  following  manner.  He  plants  the  stocks  at  a  dis- 
tance of  28  inches  one  from  the  other  ;  then  he  regularly  distri- 
butes the  shoots  on  each  side  of  the  stem,  making  them  spring 
alternately  every  10  inches  in  such  a  manner  that  they  may  be 
separated  by  an  interval  of  20  inches  on  the  same  side  of  the 
stem.  "We  shall  find,  in  discussing  the  method  of  prun'ng,  how 
perfect  regularity  in  this  respect  may  be  obtained. 


332  APPENDIX  n. 

The  trellis  thus  arranged  presents  the  follo\^ing  advantages. 
In  scorched  and  dry  soils,  the  stocks  and  the  horizontal  branches 
arranged  in  the  manner  previously  described  suifer  much  from  the 
heat  of  the  sun,  from  which  they  are  very  imperfectly  shaded  by 
their  leaves.  In  the  trellis  with  alternate  shoots  the  main  stalks 
are  completely  covered.  These  cordons  may  therefore  be  usefully 
employed  in  dry  soils.  Besides,  these  cordons  are  suitable  for 
the  most  confined  space,  since  they  require  only  28  inches. 

But  this  vertical  cordon  cannot  be  conveniently  applied 
against  a  high  wall,  for  as  the  sap  tends  toward  the  top  of  the 
plant,  the  shoots  toward  its  base  become  feeble  and  languishing. 
We  have  remarked  this  fact  at  Fontainebleau,  where  the  wall 
which  supports  these  cordons  is  13  feet  high.  It  is  our  opinion 
that  the  main  stem  should  not  be  allowed  to  exceed  80  inches.  If 
the  wall  is  higher,  the  following  modification  (Fig.  74)  may  be 
used,  equally  due  to  M.  Kose  Charmeux,  For  a  wall  13  feet  high 
the  stocks  are  planted  only  every  14  inches ;  then  the  stalk  of 
each  is  allowed  to  rise  alternately  to  66.4  inches  and  to  13  feet ; 
but  the  latter  commence  to  bear  shoots  only  directly  above  the 
point  where  the  first  cease — that  is  to  say  at  66.4.  In  tliis 
manner  the  wall  is  completely  covered  and  the  cultivator  has 
not  to  dread  the  destruction  of  the  lower  shoots. 

The  trellis  with  vertical  cordons  which  we  have  just  de- 
scribed is  simpler  and  more  easily  formed  than  those  with 
horizontal  cordons  ;  but  experience  has  shown  that  its  produce 
is  less  abundant,  since  for  an  equal  surface  it  ofiers  a  smaller 
number  of  branches. 

M.  Rose  Charmeux,  struck  by  the  advantages  off'ered  by  the 
simplicity  of  this  arrangement,  has  attempted  to  render  it  as 
fruitful  as  the  horizontal  cordons.  He  completely  resolved  the 
problem  in  1828  by  means  of  the  following  modification,  which 
gives  for  the  same  surface  of  wall  a  greater  number  of  shoots, 
and  consequently  a  greater  number  of  clusters.  As  this  new 
arrangement  is  at  once  more  simple,  and  more  easily  obtained 
than  the  others,  and  as  it  may  be  accommodated  to  walls  of  all 
heights,  we  recommend  it  to  the  exclusion  of  other  plans,  and 


APPENDIX   n. 


333 


Fig.  74. 


we  shall  choose  it  to  study  in  detail  the  method  of  cultivation 
and  pruning  suitable  to  trellised  vines. 


APPENDIX   n. 


CULTIVATION  OF  TRELLISED  VINES,  ARRANGED 
WITH  VERTICAL  STEMS  (CORDONS)  BEARING  OP- 
POSITE   SHOOTS. 

In  this  new  arrangement  (Fig.  75)  the  vines  are  planted 
at  the  foot  of  the  wall  every  14  inches.  The  wall,  whatever  be 
its  height,  is  horizontally  divided  into  two  equal  parts.  The 
first  vine  sto])s  at  half  the  height  of  the  wall.  The  second  is 
allowed  to  reach  its  summit,  and  thus  continue  in  this  manner 
alternately  to  the  extremity  of  the  wall.  The  reader  will  observe 
that  the  shorter  vines  bear  shoots  from  about  12  inches  above 
the  soil  to  their  tops,  and  tlie  taller  begin  to  bear  shoots  only  on 
leaving  the  lower  half  of  the  wall.  These  pairs  of  slioots  are  10 
inches  distant  from  each  other.  This  arrangement  oifers  all  the 
advantages  presented  by  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  74 ;  that  is  to 
say,  that  in  consequence  of  the  length  of  the  main  stem  fur- 
nished with  shoots,  these  last  are  maintained  in  equal  growth. 
Moreover,  the  new  form  grows  more  shoots  for  the  same  sur- 
face than  is  shown  in  Fig.  74,  and  more  even  than  the  horizontal 
cordons.  If,  however,  the  wall  is  only  39  inches  high,  all  the 
vines  may  be  made  to  rise  regularly  to  its  summit.  P)Ut  in  that 
case  they  should  be  placed  at  intervals  of  28  inches  and  should 
be  furnished  with  branches  from  12  inches  above  the  soil  to  the 
top  of  the  wall.  • 

Let  us  now  turn  to  the  labor  necessary  to  the  establishment 
of  such  a  trellis  as  the  one  described  above. 

Walls  peoper  foe  the  Teellis. — The  vine  arranged  in  ver- 
tical cordons  accommodate  themselves  to  walls  of  all  heights. 
At  Thomery  the  gardens  are  subdivided  by  bearing  walls 
parallel  to  each  other  and  separated  by  a  space  of  from  40  to 
46|  feet.  They  may,  however,  be  placed  nearer  to  each  other, 
but  in  that  case  the  earth  between  will  be  too  much  shaded, 
and  cannot  be  turned  to  account  These  bearing  walls  are  only 
85  inches  high,  and  were  built  many  years  after  those  of  iuclo- 
sm-e;  that  is  to  say,  when  the  young  vines  which  it  is  intended 
they  shall  support,  have  been  carried  thence  by  many  successive 


APPENDIX   II. 


335 


Fig.  75. 


336  APPENDIX  n. 

layerings  (coucliages).  Thus  the  interest  of  the  capital  employed 
in  these  constructions  is  economized.  Some  of  the  cultivators 
of  Thomerj  have  also  constructed  a  sort  of  counter  espalier — 
that  is  to  say,  a  lesser  wall  opposite  the  principal  bearing  wall, 
in  masonry  45  inches  liigh  and  6  to  8  inches  thick.  Only  one 
of  these  little  walls  is  placed  100  inches  in  front  of  the  principal 
walls  the  most  favoi^ly  situated.  In  this  manner  they  derive 
every  possible  advantage  from  their  best  exposures. 

This  subdivision  of  the  inclosures  not  only  enables  the  culti- 
vator to  obtain  a  larger  liarvest,  but  it  likewise  offers  the 
advantage  of  diminishing  the  currents  of  air,  concentrating  the 
heat  by  the  radiation,  and  thus  hastening  the  ripening  of  the 
grape. 

It  has  sometimes  been  attempted  to  use  for  trellises  the  walls 
by  which  terraces  are  supported.  The  superfluous  moisture  of 
the  soil  draws  to  the  bottom  of  the  wall  and  injures  the  vine  stalks. 
For  almost  every  other  kind*of  fruit-tree  very  projecting  copings 
offer  more  inconveniences  than  advantages,  but  for  the  vine  the 
case  is  different.  On  the  one  hand,  these  copings  take  place  with 
those  movable  fruit-houses  which  we  haverecommended  for  cov- 
ering espalier  trees  in  order  to  preserve  them  from  the  chills  of  the 
spring;  and  on  the  other,  they  shelter  the  vine  from  the  mois- 
ture of  the  rains  and  dews,  which  results  in  a  more  active  vege- 
tation and  a  more  prolonged  development,  injurious  to  the 
ripening  of  the  grape.  Finally,  these  projections  preserve  the 
clusters  from  the  first  cold  weather  of  the  autumn,  and  thus 
delay  the  time  of  gathering  and  facilitate  their  preservation. 
All  the  walls  of  Thomery  are  finished  by  tile  copings.  Their 
projection  is  greater  in  proportion  to  the  height  of  the  walls, 
being  14  inches  for  walls  of  156  inches,  12  inches  for  those  of 
117  inches,  10  inches  for  those  of  100  inches,  8  inches  for  those 
of  80  inches,  and  5^  inches  for  the  little  walls  of  the  counter 
espalier.     In  the  last  case  they  are  inclined  only  from  one  side. 

The  walls  thus  built  are  white,  being  covered  with  lime.  This 
color  at  Thomery  has  given  the  most  satisfactory  results. 

When  the  method  of  construction  allows,  smooth  finished  walls 
{palissage  a  la  loque),  should  be  used;    we  may  then  dispense 


APPENDIX    II.  337 

with  the  trellis.  But  the  great  quantity  of  plaster  required 
by  this  arrangement  renders  it  too  expensive  to  be  used 
beyond  a  certain  distance  from  Paris.  We  must  have 
recourse  to  frames,  and  for  the  form  of  trellis  of  which  we  are 
speaking,  they  should  be  erected  in  the  following  manner: 

A  series  of  galvanized  iron  wires  (No.  14)  are  extended  along 
the  wall.  Upon  these  wires  laths  are  fastened  every  12  inches, 
and  to  these  laths  the  main  stem  of  each  vine  is  trained  alter- 
nately to  half  the  height  and  to  the  summit  of  the  wall. 

Exposure  of  the  Walls. — The  trellised  vine  demands  an 
exposure  at  once  as  dry  and  as  warm  as  possible.  In  the  north 
and  the  centre  of  France  this  double  condition  is  best  fulfilled 
by  a  southeast  exposure.  A  soutliern  exposure  is  doubtless  the 
warmest,  but  the  trellises  with  such  an  aspect  also  receive  too 
directly  the  damp  winds  and  rains  of  the  southwest.  The  culti- 
vators of  Thomery  use  the  side  of  their  walls  exposed  to  the 
west  and  to  the  southwest,  but  gather  from  thence  grapes  of  the 
second  or  third  quality  only. 

Pkopagation  of  the  Vine. — On  the  different  modes  of  pro- 
pagation to  be  chosen  for  a  trellised  vine,  we  would  offer  the 
following  observations.  Slips  or  cuttings  propagated  from 
layers  are  often  used  in  forming  trellises.  When  intended  for  a 
permanency,  they  are  planted  in  the  manner  which  we  will 
proceed  to  describe.  They  begin  to  bear  frnit  only  in  the 
fourth  year.  They  should  be  used  only  iu  the  absence  of 
the  layers  themselves,  for  whose  first  fruit  we  are  not 
obliged  so  long  to  wait.  The  layers,  or  as  they  are  called  at 
Thomery,  the  chevelees^  are  generally  to  be  preferred,  for  when 
they  are  transplanted  with  care,  and  their  roots  are  not  dried  by 
exposure  to  the  air,  their  vegetation  during  the  first  years  is 
more  vigorous,  and  thus  time  is  gained.  Two  sorts  of  layers 
are  used — uncovered  layers  and  layers  in  baskets.  The  unco- 
vered layers  (Fig.  76)  are  freed  from  all  the  earth  which 
surrounds  them,  when  they  are  planted  for  a  trellis.  When 
planted  with  care,  they  will  begin  to  bear  at  the  end  of  three 
years.  The  basket  layers  (Fig.  77)  are  prepared  in  the  follow- 
ing manner.     In  the  spring  is  made  an  osier  basket  (d)  of  an 

15 


338 


APPENDIX   U. 


oval  form  and  12  inches  long  by  10  inches  broad,  and  having  a 
depth  of  10  inches.  These  baskets  sliould  be  made  of  green 
osier,  that  they  may  remain  intact  during  a  year.  When  the 
proper  time  for  making  the  layer  has  arrived,  the  shoots  to  be 
operated  upon  being  before  chosen,  a  hole  is  pierced  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  basket  at  the  point  a,  by  which  the  shoot  enters; 
each  basket  is  then  placed  at  a  depth  of  6  inches  in  the  soil, 
and  they  are  then  filled  with  earth  of  good  quality,  to  which 
has  been  added  a  portion  of  vegetable  mold.  Lastly,  the  top 
of  the  shoot  is  then  cut  in  such  a  manner  that  only  two  buds  or 
germs  are  left  above  the  s&il,  and  the  whole  is  sustained  by  a 
prop.  The  operation  is  terminated  by  taking  off  all  the  buda 
on  that  part  of  the  stem  situated  between  the  mother  branch 
and  the  basket.  This  suppression  is  necessary  to  prevent  th.ese 
buds  from  absorbing  the  sap  in  their  development  at  the  expense 
of  the  layer.     During  the  summer  the  two  buds  on  the  layer 


APPENDIX   II. 


339 


treely  develop  themselves,  and  put  forth  abundant  roots,  so  that 
at  the  end  of  the  year  the  layer  is  ready  for  use.  The  whole  is 
then  taken  up  and  the  layer  hardly  suffers  at  all  from  the  sepa- 
ration from  the  parent  stalk.  This  undoubtedly  is  the  best 
method  of  propagation,  and  is  that  which  is  preferred  at  Tho- 
mery.  Unhappily,  on  account  of  the  expense  altending  the 
transportation  of  the  basket  layers,  the  cultivator  is  often  com- 
pelled to  use  the  unprotected  layer^  or  cheveUes. 

Graft. — As  to  the  graft,  this  mode  of  propagation,  or  multi- 
plication, is  employed  for  trellised  vines  only  as  an  exception, 
and  in  circumstances  analogous  to  those  which  render  this 
operation  necessary  in  ordinary  vineyards.  We  have  in  the 
preceding  part  of  this  volume  described  the  graft  ^^  en  fente 


340  APPENDIX    II. 

'bouture "  as  one  of  the  best  for  the  vine.  If,  however,  a 
cheveUe  maj  be  used,  it  is  to  be  preferred  to  any  other  for  the 
purpose.  It  is  planted  near  the  vine,  and  the  operation  is  con- 
ducted in  the  same  manner  as  for  the  graft. 

The  great  advantage  of  the  chevelee  is  that  it  bears  fruit  the 
following  summer. 

An  essential  precaution,  and  one  which  is  equally  applicable 
to  the  three  methods  of  propagation  above  mentioned,  is  the 
proper  choice  of  the  shoot  intended  to  furnish  the  graft,  the 
cutting  or  the  layer.  The  shoot  should  have  borne  fruit  during 
the  year,  and  should  be  strong  and  in  a  healthy  condition.  The 
clusters  should  have  been  such  as  to  exhibit  in  the  highest 
degree  the  distinguishing  qualities  of  the  variety  which  it  .is 
desired  to  cultivate.  Before  the  grapes  are  gathered,  the  shoots 
which  appear  the  best  suited  for  this  purpose  should  be  marked. 

Plantation  and  Peocess  of  Bedding  oe  Laying  the 
Teellised  Vi:5p:. — Firat  Year. — The  superabundant  moisture 
with  which  the  soil  is  always  impregnated  during  the  winter  is 
especially  injurious  to  the  roots  of  the  newly-planted  vine;  it 
causes  them  to  decay.  The  end  of  the  winter,  when  the  earth 
is  drained  sufficiently,  is  the  time  which  should  almost  always  be 
chosen  for  planting.  There  is  no  exception  to  this  rule,  but 
for  dry  and  scorched  soil  like  that  of  central  and  southern 
France.  In  such  ground  it  is  better  to  plant  at  the  beginning 
of  winter.  The  following  is  the  process  employed  for  layers  in 
baskets  • 

]f  the  land  to  be  used  is  new,  or  if  it  has  not  lately  been  tho- 
roughly cultivated,  it  should  be  dug  during  the  winter  to  a 
depth  of  3^  or  even  so  deep  as  39  inches,  if  the  soil  is  pebbly. 
The  soil  thus  spaded  up  should  extend  to  within  53.2  inches  of 
the  base  of  the  wall.  In  the  preceding  chapters  we  have 
already  spoken  of  tbe  necessity  that  the  soil  should  be  such  as 
to  conduce  to  the  healtli  of  the  plants  which  it  is  intended  to 
support.  Such  a  soil  is  particularly  essential  to  the  vine.  It 
may  even  be  advisable,  after  the  first  spading  mentioned,  to 
carry  it  to  a  depth  of  48  inches,  and  to  widen  it  to  an  extent 
of  89  inches.      The  permeability  of  the   soil   should  also  be 


APPENDIX    II.  841 

increased  by  the  mixtures  of  earth  already  described,  and  the 
earth  in  all  cases  should  be  richly  manured. 

When  the  land  is  thus  prepared,  in  the  spring,  a  trench  is 
opened  17  inches  deep  in  dry,  20  inches  deep  in  wet  soils. 
The  outer  edge  of  this  trench  is  28  inches  from  the  wall.  The 
earth  taken  from  it  is  deposited  on  each  side.  Vegetable  mold, 
or  compost,  mixed  with  earth,  is  then  spread  over  the  bottom. 
In  this  trench  the  baskets  containing  the  layers  are  placed. 
Should  the  soil  be  very  dry  the  trench  may  be  opened  at 
89  inches  from  the  foot  of  the  wall,-  instead  of  28.  A  greater 
length  of  the  stem  is  then  bedded  before  it  readies  the  wall,  and 
the  roots,  spread  over  a  greater  space,  will  more  easily  find  the 
portion  of  moisture  which  they  require.  The  space  to  be  left 
between  these  layers  is  of  course  determined  by  that  which  it  is 
intended  shall  be  left  between  the  vertical  cordons  upon  the 
wall.  If  the  cordons  are  intended  to  be  14  inclies  distant  one 
from  the  other,  the  layers  are  separated  by  an  interval  of  28 
inches,  as  after  they  have  been  laid,  each  layer  should  furnish 
two  branches  at  the  foot  of  the  walk  A  numbe'*  of  layers 
might  be  planted  equal  to  the  number  of  stems  supporting  the 
cordons,  which  are  intended  for  the  wall ;  but  in  that  case  they 
would  be  separated  by  a  less  interval,  and  would,  as  it  were, 
starve  each  other.  Moreover,  the  number  of  layers  being 
greater,  the  expense  would  be  increased. 

It  will,  then,  be  more  advisable  to  proceed  in  the  manner  just 
described;  at  all  events,  in  those  cases  where  the  wall  being 
only  39  inches  in  height,  all  the  stems  are  to  extend  to  the 
top. 

When  the  stalks  from  the  layers  are  separated  at  the  base  of 
the  wall  by  an  interval  of  28  inches,  the  number  of  basket  layers 
planted  is  equal  to  that  of  these  stalks.  If  the  first  process  is 
adopted,  the  layers  are  planted  at.  the  pomt  a  (Fig.  78),  in  tlie 
centre  of  the  space  by  which  the  stalks  against  the  wall  are 
divided  one  from  the  other.  In  tlie  second  case,  the  layers  are 
placed  at  the  point  a,  in  front  of  each  of  the  points  indicated 
by  B. 

The  layers  are  planted  in  the  following  manner :  From  each 


342 


APPENDIX   U. 


layer  composed  of  two  shoots,  the  least  vigorous  one  is  sepa- 
rated. The  roots  which  issue  from  the  basket  are  left  un- 
touched, provided  that  they  are  not  broken,  or  dried  by  exposure 
to  the  air.  •  This  being  done,  at  the  bottom  of  the  trench,  and 
on  that  side  which  is  farthest  from  the  wall,  a  hole  is  made  6 
inches  deep  and  a  little  larger  than  the  basket  which  it  is 
intended  to  receive.  In  each  of  these  holes  a  basket  is  placed 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  end  of  the  shoot  which  it  contains  is 
turned  toward  the  wall.  That  and  the  basket  should  be  10  inches 
below  the  level  of  the  soil.     A  little  notch  is  then  made  in  the 


APPENDIX  n.  343 

npper  edge  of  the  basket  on  that  side  nearest  the  wall,  so  that 
the  shoot  may  be  easily  turned  in  the  required  direction.  Then 
on  that  side  of  the  trencli  nearest  the  wall,  and  in  front  of  each 
basket,  is  made  a  smaller  trench,  as  is  shown  in  the  figure  at  d, 
3  inches  deep  and  10  inches  long.  In  this  the  shoot  is  carefully 
laid,  and  it  is  filled  with  ear+.h  mixed  with  vegetable  mold  up  to 
the  level  of  the  soil.  The  first  trench  is  partly  filled  with  the 
earth  which  was  taken  from  it,  mixed  with  vegetable  mold. 
This  operation  is  performed  in  such  a  manner  that  the  trench  is 
left  empty  to  the  depth  of  8  inches,  that  the  layer  is  buried  to 
the  depth  of  10  inches,  and  that  the  top  of  the  basket  is  covered 
by  a  bed  of  earth  2  inches  in  thickness.  The  operation  is  con- 
cluded by  cutting  off  the  shoot,  as  it  leaves  the  earth  just  above 
the  bud  E,  or  that  which  is  nearest  the  ground.  The  sap  being . 
thus  concentrated  upon  a  single  bud,  it  attains  a  more  vigorous 
development,  and  that  part  of  the  shoot  which  is  buried,  puts 
forth  more  roots,  which  pierce  the  bark  with  greater  ease,  in 
proportion  as  the  leaf-buds  from  which  they  spring  are  nearer 
to  the  light.  The  end  of  the  shoot  above  the  earth  is  fixed 
upon  a  stave  or  prop  39  inches  in  length,  and  the  remainder  of 
the  earth  taken  out  of  the  trench  is  piled  up  on  each  side  in  the 
form  of  a  shelving  bank.  The  result  of  this  last  arrangement  is 
to  retain  a  greater  degree  of  moisture  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  newly-planted  shoot  during  the  summer. 

When  the  cultivator  has  no  layers  in  baskets  at  his  disposal, 
and  is  obliged  to  content  himself  with  uncovered  layers  or  even 
with  cuttings,  they  should  be  planted  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  basket  layers,  only  care  must  be  taken  to  place  the  earth 
firmly  around  the  cheveUes  and  especially  around  the  cuttings, 
and  all  that  part  which  is  under  ground  should  be  surrounded 
with  earth  which  has  been  considerably  enriched. 

We  will  now  proceed  to  describe  the  attentions  demanded  by 
this  plantation  during  the  next  summer.  When  the  bud  e  is 
developed,  it  is  fixed  upon  the  prop.  As  soon  as  it  has  attained 
a  length  of  20  inches  the  top  is  cut  off;  next  the  premature 
twigs  which  are  thus  developed  are  removed  when  they  are 
4  inches  in  length.     The  result    .  this  operation  is  to  increase 


8M 


APPENDIX    n. 


khe  size  of  the  stem  by  limiting  the  evolution  of  the  antici- 
patory shoots,  and  to  accumulate  in  a  small  space  all  the  nutri- 
tive juices  taken  up  by  the  roots.  It  also  promotes  the.  increase 
of  the  roots  along  the  newly  interred  layer.  No  bunch  of 
grapes  is  allowed  to  remain  on  this  shoot  for  fear  of  weakening 
it.  The  whole  plantation  should  also  receive  two  or  three  dress- 
ings in  the  course  of  the  year.  They  should  be  applied,  if  possi- 
ble, after  rather  a  smart  shower  of  rain,  and  when  the  earth  has 
slightly  drained.  If  the  soil  is  light  and  dryness  is  to  be  appre- 
hended, the  trench  and  the  little  ditch  should  be  covered  with 
a  bed  of  manure  6  inches  in  thickness,  besides  that  which  has 
already  been  applied,  and  finally,  the  trench  is  filled  with  the 
earth  banked  up  on  each  side.  After  this  operation,  the  whole 
appears  like  Fig.  78. 

Second  Yeae  of  the  Plantation. — Toward  the  end  of 
February,  the  shoot  developed  during  the  preceding  year  is  cut 
at  A  (Fig.  79),  above  the  three  buds  nearest  to  the  base,  then  it 


\_l 


Fig.  79. 

is  attached  to  a  prop  53  inches  long  which  replaces  the  hrst. 
When  the  shoots  have  attained  a  length  of  6  inches  the 
laterals  are  pinched  out,  so  as  to  preserve  only  the  shoots 
from  the  three  buds  just  described.  These  shoots  are  fixed 
upon  a  prop  in  proportion  as  they  grow  longer.  They  are 
not  allowed  to  exceed  the  prop  by  which  they  are  supported, 
and  the  process  of  nipping  off  the  buds  is  continued.     Should 


APPENDIX    II. 


845 


tt.e  slioots  on  the  props  be  very  vigorous,  two  clusters,  at  the 
mo^t,  should  be  left  upon  each,  and  should  be  treated  in  the 
manner  which  we  will  explain  in  the  proper  order.  The  same 
attentions  are  bestowed  as  in  the  preceding  summer,  and  then 
a  light  dressing  in  November.  The  result  then  obtained  is 
shown  in  Fig.  80. 


Fig.  80. 

Third  Year. — Relaying. — In  good  weather  in  the  first  of 
March,  or,  if  in  the  South,  in  the  a  itumn,  the  layers  must  be 
examined  in  order  to  know  if  they  have  put  forth  shoots  suffi- 
ciently large  and  vigorous  to  be  relaid.  If  uncovered  layers, 
and  still  more,  if  cuttings  have  been  planted,  the  cultivator  will 
be  obliged  to  wait  till  the  following  year  and  even  to  the  year 
after  to  repeat  the  process  of  bedding  or  laying.  The  roots  on 
the  previously  bedded  shoot  will  not  be  sufficiently  numerous, 
they  would  injure  in  their  development  the  new  layer  which  it 
is  intended  to  put  down,  and  the  future  health  of  the  stalk  des- 
tined to  be  placed  against  the  wall  would  suffer.  In  that  case 
only  the  two  finest  shoots  of  the  young  stalk  should  be  pre- 
served. These  are  cut  to  a  length  of  only  6  inches,  and  upon 
these  only  a  single  shoot  is  preserved  during  the  summer. 
Should  they  not  be  strong  enough  for  relaying  in  the  following 
year,  the  same  operation  is  repeated.  The  stalks  obtained  from 
layers  in  baskets  may  almost  always  be  rebedded  from  the  third 
year.     In  that   case  the    following  method   is   employed.     A 

15* 


346 


APPEiirDix  n. 


trenoli  24  to  30  inches  deep,  according  as  the  soil  is  more  or 
less  exposed  to  dampness,  is  opened  at  the  foot  of  the  wall,  and 
is  made  wide  enough  to  reach  the  young  vines  (Fig.  81).     The 


Fig.  81. 

earth  round  the  young  vines  is  loosened  with  care  until  they 
turn  naturally  of  themselves  into  the  trench,  in  the  bottom  of 
which  they  are  then  placed  in  the  manner  shown  by  Figs.  81 
and  82,  that  is  to  say,  if  each  principal  vine  stalk  is  intended  to 
produce  two  stalks  to  be  trained  on  the  wall  (Fig.  82),  the  two 


Fijr.  82. 


APPENDIX    II. 


347 


most  vigorous  shoots  sliould  be  preserved,  and  they  should  be 
earned  obliquely  toward  the  wall,  and  from  two  stalks  at  the 
points  B.  If,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  intended  that  each  principal 
stalk  shall  furnish  but  one  stalk  for  the  wall  (Fig.  83),  only 


the  finest  shoot  is  preserved,  which  is  buried  in  the  trench  and 
directed  toward  the  wall  at  the  point  b,  where  it  is  intended  to 
be  trained.  In  both  cases  the  shoots  are  covered  as  far  as  the 
foot  of  the  wall  by  a  bed  of  mixed  soil  and  vegetable  mold 
about  4  inches  in  thickness  (Fig.  83).  The  trench  is  then  filled 
with  part  of  the  earth  which  was  taken  from  it,  and  the  re- 
mainder is  heaped  up  in  a  shelving  bank  at  a  distance  of  40 
inches  from  the  wall,  in  order  to  preserve  the  moisture  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  newly  laid  vines,  and  thus  facilitate  a 
plentiful  development  of  roots. 

The  upper  extremities  of  the  buried  shoots  are  fixed  at  the 
base  of  the  uprights  of  the  trellis.  These  shoots  are  cut  so  as 
to  preserve  only  the  three  buds  nearest  the  base.  This  opera- 
tion being  concluded,  the  trellis  presents  the  form  shown  in 
Fig.  81. 

If  the  plantation  of  layers  or  cuttings  has  been  in  a  trench  at 
a  distance  of  40  inches  from  the  wall  instead  of  28  inclies,  they 
must  be  brought  to  the  foot  of  the  wall  only  after  a  third  lay- 
ing, otherwise  we  should  be  obliged  each  time  to  cover  too 
large  a  part  of  the  shoot,  which,  as  we  shall  see  further  on,  will 


348  APPENDIX    II. 

prevent  them  from  properly  taking  root,  and  so  injure  the 
strength  of  the  vine. 

If  this  method  of  planting  for  the  trellised  vine  is  compared 
with  that  used  in  the  majority  of  gardens,  it  will  be  seen  that 
it  is  very  different.  In  fact,  the  vines  are  almost  always  planted 
directly  at  the  foot  of  the  wall,  and  the  only  pa/t  buried  is  that 
which  was  originally  below  the  soil ;  so  that  the  vine,  the  roots 
of  which  ramify  with  great  difficulty,  cannot,  when  thus, 
planted,  develop  new  radical  organs  upon  the  stems  below  the 
soil.  It  puts  forth  roots  with  great  difficulty,  it  is  long  in 
recovering  from  its  transplantation,  ^nd  its  vegetation  is  never 
vigorous. 

On  the  contrary,  by  adopting  the  mode  of  cultivation  used  at 
Thomery,  which  we  have  just  described,  the  vine  is  placed 
under  much  better  circumstances.  The  first  year  there  is 
buried,  besides  the  stem  first  covered  with  roots,  10  inches  of 
the  shoot,  which  during  the  two  or  three  years  preceding  the 
relaying,  covers  itself  with  vigorous  roots.  Two  or  three  years 
after  this,  14  inches  of  the  shoot  are  again  laid,  which  in  a  little 
while  is  completely  covered  with  roots.  Each  stalk  intended 
for  the  wall  is  then  provided  with  an  underground  stem  44 
inches  in  length,  bearing  through  all  its  length  numerous  and 
vigorous  roots,  which  give  to  the  vine  more  strength  and  hardi- 
ness than  is  possible  when  the  method  of  which  we  spoke  first 
is  used.  When  uncovered  cJievclees^  or  those  in  baskets  are 
used,  the  cultivator  may  be  tempted  to  lay  at  once  a  length  of 
shoot  sufficient  to  bring  the  upper  end  directly  to  the  foot  of  the 
wall,  a  length,  for  instance  of  24  inches.  This  is  a  very  bad 
plan,  for  the  stems  do  not  properly  take  root  only  upon  the  12 
to  14  inches  nearest  to  the  upper  ends,  because  the  woody 
and  cortical  fibres  which  run  down  from  the  buds  to  produce 
roots  are  not  sufficiently  numerous  to  put  forth  roots  enough, 
and  they  pierce  the  bark  at  the  same  time  that  they  meet  the 
soil.  It  is  desirable  to  lay  only  14  inclies  at  the  most,  if  it  is 
intended  that  the  underground  stalk  shall  be  fully  provided  with 
roots  throughout  its  whole  extent. 

Method   of  Pruning  adopted  for  the  Vertically  Trel- 


APPENDIX    n. 


34:9 


LISED     YiNE     WITH     OPPOSITE     ShOOTS. CONSTEUOTIO:^     OF     THE 

Frame. — First  Tear. — Tlie  shoots  having  been  laid  and  brought 
to  the  foot  of  the  wall,  the  buds  are  watched  in  their  first  deve- 
lopment to  see  that  they  are  not  harmed  by  caterpillars,  snails, 
or  other  destructive  insects.  When  the  three  shoots  have 
attained   a  length    of    about    6   inches,    the   stipulary   shoots 


^ B 


Fig.  84. 

(A,  Fig.  84),  which  often  grow  by  the  side  of  the  shoots  properly 
so  called,  are  taken  away.  Then,  when  they  are  about  12  inches 
long,  we  begin  to  break  the  tendrils  which  uselessly  absorb  the 
sap.  This  breaking  of  the  tendrils  is  continued  through  the 
period  during  which  the  length  of  the  shoot  increases,  and 
should  be  put  in  force  while  the  tendrils  are  yet  so  soft  that 
they  may  be  easily  broken.  That  is  also  the  time  which  s^hould 
be  chosen  to  begin  the  formation  of  the  stalk  intended  to  be 
trained  upon  the  wall.  The  following  is  the  method  then 
employed : 

Let  us  suppose  that  one  of  these  young  stalks  is  represented 
by  Fig.  84.  From  the  three  stalks  which  have  been  preserved, 
one  is  chosen  having  a  leaf  12  inches  above  the  ground.  Let  us 
suppose  in  our  figure  that  this  is  the  second  shoot  on  leaving 


350 


APPENDIX    II. 


the  ground,  and  that  the  leaf  aforesaid  is  situated  opposite  the 
second  cluster.  This  cluster  is  taken  off  and  the  shoot  is  cut 
immediately  above  this  leaf,  as  in  b,  Fig.  85.    The  top  of  the  two 


9 


Fig.  85. 

other  shoots  is  then  removed  in  order  to  hinder  them  from  too 
great  a  growth  to  the  detriment  of  the  shoot  upon  which  it  is 
intended  to  operate.  We  may  then  proceed  to  train  it  upon  the 
frame.  The  shoot  under  treatment  is  placed  in  a  vertical  posi- 
tion, and  the  two  others  are  attaclied  at  an  angle  of  forty-five 
degrees.  A  premature  stipulary  shoot  will  be  seen  immediately 
to  spring  from  the  axil  of  the  leaf  of  the  cut  shoot  (a,  Fig.  85). 
This  shoot  should  be  broken  when  only  an  inch  or  two  in 
length,  so  that  the  bud  b  at  the  base  of  this  shoot  is  forced  to 
develop  itself.      Before  long  this  bud  gives  birth  to  a  shoot 


Fig.  86. 


APPENDIX    II. 


351 


(a,  Fig.  86),  which  is  allowed  to  grow,  and  which  is  trained 
vertically.  These  young  main  stalks  require  no  other  care  dur- 
ing the  summer,  so  far  as  the  frame  is  concerned,  than  the 
complete  suppression   of  all   the   premature   stipulary   shoots 


Fig.  87. 


(a,  Fig.  87),  or  of  premature  shoots  commonly  so  called,  as  also 
of  the  tendrils.  Upon  each  shoot  should  be  left  only  the  clus- 
ters c  and  D  and  the  primitive  leaves.  These  attentions  should 
be  given  each  year  to  all  the  shoots  preserved. 

Second  Year. — The  stems  operated  upon  in  the  manner  just 
described  present  the  appearance  of  Fig.  88,  They  are  then 
subjected  to  the  second  pruning.  The  two  shoots  (b)  are  com- 
pletely taken  off  by  cutting  the  first  at  a.  Then  the  premature 
shcx)t  0  is  cut  at  d  immediately  above  the  bud  situated  near  the 


352 


APPENDIX   n. 


Fig.  88. 

base.     During  the  following  summer  this  bud  develops  itself  as 
well  as  the  germs  immediately  below  it  upon  the  secondary  shoot, 


APPEKDIX    II. 


353 


indicated  by  the  letters  e  e,  which  is  called  the  spur  (talon). 
The  number  of  buds  on  tlie  spur  may  be  three  or  four.  But 
two  buds  on  the  spur,  one  on  each  side  and  one  at  the  top  of 
the  shoot,  are  preserved.  The  produce  of  the  buds  e  e  is  entirely 
removed.  This  last  operation  is  performed  as  soon  as  the  shoots 
from  the  spur  Jiave  attained  a  length  of  4  inches.  When  the 
remaining  shoots  are  fastened  to  the  frame,  the  young  vine 
presents  the  appearance  of  Fig.  86.  When  tlie  centre  shoot  (b) 
puts  forth,  as  it  increases  in  length,  a  leaf  above  that  point 
where  the  first  pair  of  lateral  shoots  is  attached,  it  is  cut  above 
this  leaf  at  the  point  a,  as  in  the  preceding  summer,  in  order  to 
obtain  from  the  axil  of  this  leaf  a  new  shoot  for  the  formation 
of  a  second  pair,  which  must  be  treated  in  the  same  manner. 
The  two  lateral  shoots  are  subjected  to  the  same  operation. 
Third  Year.— In  the  following  spring  each  stem  on  the  walls 


Fig.  89. 

presents  the  appearance  of  Fig.  89.  The  shoot  a  is  cut  at  the 
point  B,  in  order  to  obtain  the  same  result  as  in  the  preceding 
year.  As  to  the  branches  c,  they  are  cut  near  their  base  in 
order  to  form  the  two  first  coursons  or  double  branches  shown 


354 


APPENDIX   n. 


Fig.  90. 


in  Fig.  90.  The  same  development  takes  place  during  the  sum- 
mer below  the  point  b,  as  well  as  the  same  operation  upon  the 
new  terminal  shoot.     The  product  of  the  buds  d  is  removed. 

Fourth  Year. — Fig.  90  shows  the  result  of  the  operations 
performed  during  the  preceding  years.  The  same  method  of 
pruning  is  practised  one  year  after  another  until  the  trellised 
vine  has  covered  the  space  for  which  it  was  intended,  when  it 
presents  the  appearance  shown  in  Fig.  74. 

All  til  at  we  have  just  said  applies  to  those  stems  which  rise 
to  half  the  height  of  the  wall.  Those  which  extend  to  its  top 
grow  more  rapidly  during  the  first  years.  During  the  summer, 
after  the  layering  by  which  they  have  been  brought  to  the  wall, 
two  shoots  are  left  upon  each  of  the  three  first  shoots.     The 


APPENDIX   II.  355 

following  year,  at  the  winter  priming,  the  strongest  of  the  three 
shoots  resulting  from  thence  is  chosen;  the  two  others  are 
taken  away  and  the  remaining  one  is  cut  at  20  inches  ahove  the 
point  where  it  is  attached  to  the  frame.  In  summer  it  is  aHovved 
to  retain  but  three  buds,  which  give  place  to  three  new  shoots. 
The  best  of  these  is  again  chosen  and  extended  also  to  20  inches. 
The  same  process  is  repeated  till  the  vertical  stalk  reaches  the 
point  where  it  is  intended  to  support  lateral  branches.  Then 
the  same  series  of  operations  is  employed  as  in  the  first  case. 

This  method  of  forming  the  main  stalks  has  this  advantage, 
that  each  pair  of  lateral  branches  being  separated  by  a  regular 
interval  of  10  inches  and  by  a  knotty  place  at  the  point  of 
attachment  of  the  successive  extensions,  the  course  of  the 
sap  is  arrested  below  every  one  of  these  knots  and  thus  obliged 
to  act  with  the  same  intensity  on  all  the  lateral  branches  of  the 
same  stalk.  Such  is  not  the  use  in  the  vertical  cordons  which 
are  more  rapidly  formed,  as  they  are  more  extended  at  each 
pruning. 

Caee  necessary  to  the  Lateeal  Beanches. — First  Year. — 
The  essential  principles  of  pruning  the  lateral  branches  are  the 
following :  In  the  case  of  the  vine,  the  clusters  are  attached  to 


Fig.  91. 


shoots  proceeding  from  the  branches  of  the  preceding  summer 
(Fig.  91).  The  shoots  accidentally  developed  on  the  old  wood 
never  bear  grapes  (Fig.  92). 

The  further  the  buds  are    removed  from  the   base   of  the 
branch,  the  more  fruitful  are  the  shoots  to  which  they  give  rise. 


356 


APPENDIX   n. 


Fig.  92. 

Hence  it  appears  that  the  shoots  should  be  left  entire,  or  bo 
left  very  long.  But  in  that  case  we  immediately  encounter  the 
following  inconveniences.  Thus,  if  the  shoot  in  the  Fig.  93  is 
cut  in  B,  the  buds  o  and  b  are  the  only  ones  which  will  be 


Fig.  93. 


Fig.  94. 


developed,  and  we  shall  have  in  the  following  year  the  result 
shown  in  Fig.  94.  If,  then,  we  trim  the  shoot  at  the  points 
A  and  B  (Fig.  94),  we  shall  have  two  new  shoots  produced  at  the 
top  cf  the  shoot  b.  Continuing  to  trim  in  this-manner  the  lateral 
branch  or  immediate  support  of  the  young  shoot  mcreases  in 
length  each  year  from  4  to  6  inches,  and  thence  results  great 
confusion  through  the  whole  extent  of  the  trained  vine,  and 
moreover,  a  progressive  enfeeblement,  or,  as  it  were,  starvation, 
of  tlie  new  shoots,  and,  consequently,  an  immediate  diminution 
of  fruitfulness. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  the  shoot  in  Fig.  93  is  cut  so  as  to 


APPENDIX  n. 


357 


preserve  only  the  bud  a,  this  bud  is  so  near  the  old  wood  that 
the  shoot  produced  from  it  will  bear  no  grapes. 

It  will  be  best,  then,  to  cut  this  shoot  (Fig.  93)  as  short  as 
possible,  to  hinder  the  lateral  shoot  from  increasing  in  length, 
but  in  such  a  manner,  however,  as  to  preserve  a  bud  far  enough 
from  the  old  wood  to  produce  grapes.  Experience  has  shown 
that  in  order  to  attain  this  double  end,  the  shoots  from  varieties 
of  only  a  slight  or  average  degree  of  strength  should  be  cut 
above  the  two  buds  the  nearest  to  the  base,  one  of  these  two 
being  that  bud  which,  hardly  visible,  is  on  the  base  of  the 
shoot  itself— that  is,  just  where  it  springs  from  the  stalk  (Fig. 
93).  Two  new  buds  are  developed,  and  in  consequence,  two 
new  shoots.  The  branch  will  then  present  tbe  appearance 
shown  in  Fig.  95. 


Fig.  95. 


The  shoot  a  has  borne  clusters  during  the  summer.  The 
shoot  B  is  too  near  the  old  wood  to  have  produced  anything. 
It  is  called  the  shoot  of  repiacemen1>— ihsA,  \s  to  say,  it  is  that 
intended  to  undergo  the  next  pruning.  For  that,  almost  all 
the  old  wood  is  cut  from  the  top  of  the  spur.  Then  the 
shoot  B  is  cut  above  the  two  buds  nearest  its  base.  During  the 
summer  two  new  shoots  are  thus  produced,  and  each  year  the 
same  method  of  pruning  is  repeated,  so  as  to  allow  the  old 
wood  to  increase  as  little  as  possible  in  length,  and  keep  the 
fruitful  shoots  as  near  as  possible  to  the  direct  channel  of  the 
sap.  Such  is  the  method  of  pruning  applied  to  the  branches 
intended  to  bear  grapes  for  the  table. 

There  are,  nevertheless,  varieties  so  hardy  that,  should  they 
be  subjected  to  this  process,  no  fruit,  or  very  little,  would  be 


358 


APPENDIX   II. 


obtained.  The  different  varieties  of  muscats,  the  Frankenthal, 
and  others  which  we  have  noted  in  our  list,  are  of  this  descrip- 
tion. For  these,  the  shoots  should  be  left  a  little  longer.  They 
are  cut  off  below  the  third  bud.  This  difference  does  not  result 
in  increasing  the  length  of  the  lateral  branches.  In  fact,  such 
is  the  strength  of  these  vines  that  three  shoots  are  obtained 
from  each  lateral  branch.  That  from  the  top,  which  generally 
bears  the  clusters,  is  the  one  preserved,  then  that  at  the  base, 
intended  to  undergo  the  next  year's  pruning.  The  intermediate 
one  is  suppressed.     The  same  operation  is  each  year  repeated. 

Disbudding  the  Lateral  Beanches  oe  Couesons. — When  the 
coursons  are  cut  so  as  to  preserve  but  two  or  three  buds,  it  will 
often  happen,  nevertheless,  that  a  larger  number  will  be  deve- 
loped. Only  two,  at  the  most,  should  be  left  at  each  point. 
The  shoot  a  (Fig.  96),  nearest  the  old  wood,  is  preserved  as  a 
shoot  of  replacement,  together  with  that  farthest  from  the  same 


Fig.  98. 


APPENDIX   II  a 59 

point  B.  The  latter  generally  bears  the  clusters.  There  are, 
however,  two  cases  in  which  but  a  single  shoot  should  be  left 
on  the  courson.  First,  when  none  of  the  shoots  of  the  courson 
bear  clusters  ;  then  a  single  shoot,  that  from  the  base,  is  useful 
as  a  shoot  of  replacement.  By  the  others  being  suppressed,  the 
remaining  one  becomes  stronger  and  will  yield  finer  fruit  in  the 
following  year. 

Second.  When  the  two  shoots  of  the  courson  both  bear  clus- 
ters, which  occasionally  occurs  in  very  fertile  years.  As  it  is 
advisable  to  leave  only  two  small  clusters  or  one  large  one  to 
be  supported  by  each  courson,  as  we  will  presently  explain,  a 
retrenchment  will  be  necessary.  In  this  case,  the  shoot  from 
the  base  only  is  preserved,  and  it  will  become  at  the  same  time 
a  fruit-bearing  shoot  and  a  shoot  of  replacement.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  retrenchment  the  shoot  in  question  will  acquire 
more  strength,  it  will  bear  better  grapes,  and  the  new  shoot 
will  afford  the  finest  products  of  the  following  year. 

The  proper  time  for  putting  in  practice  these  different  trim- 
mings, is,  as  soon  as  the  young  clusters  make  their  appearance^ 
upon  the  shoots,  that  is  to  say,  when  they  are  about  10  inches 
long.  We  must  repeat  what  we  have  said  concerning  the  cut- 
ting of  the  shoots — that  there  should  be  left  upon  each  one  of 
the  shoots  preserved  only  the  clusters  and  the  primitive  leaves. 
Then  all  the  supplementary  shoots  and  the  tendrils  should  be 
removed  as  soon  as  they  appear. 

Pinching  the  Shoots. — The  buds  on  the  shoots  of  the  vine, 
as  on  those  of  other  trees,  should  often  be  pinched  back.  The 
end  of  this  operation  is  to  prevent  the  shoots  from  confused 
growth,  to  diminish  the  growth  of  some  of  the  shoots  to  the 
profit  of  feebler  ones,  and  finally  to  favor  the  development  of 
the  grapes  by  enabling  them  to  profit  by  the  sap,  which  would 
otherwise  pass  to  the  shoots  which  would  spring  from  the  buds 
destroyed. 

In  order  to  obtain  these  different  results  the  buds  on  the 
shoots  should  be  pinched  off  as  they  develop  themselves  to  the 
length  of  from  16  to  20  inches,  and  their  extremities  only 
should  then  be  cut. 


360 


APPENDIX   II. 


Manner  of  fastening  the  Shoots  in  Summee. — The  shoots 
of  the  vine  are  fastened  in  order  to  prevent  their  being  broken 
bj  the  wind,  and  in  general  this  fastening  should  be  twice  prac- 
tised upon  the  same  shoot.  The  first  fastening  is  made  when 
the  shoots  have  attained  a  length  of  about  12  inches.  Then  the 
.shoots  are  but  slightly  compressed  in  the  rush  which  serves  as 
a  ligature.  Otherwise,  in  growing,  thej  would  break  them- 
selves. 

Fifteen  days  after  this  first  fastening,  we  proceed  to  the 
second,  or  recoUage^  as  it  is  called  by  the  cultivators  of  Tho- 
mery.  At  this  time  the  shoots  are  tied  as  close  as  is  necessary 
to  arrange  them  conveniently.  This  process  of  fastening  should 
be  successively  made  for  the  difl:erent  shoots  of  the  same  vertical 
main  stalk,  and  by  beginning  with  the  most  vigorous  we  may 
equalize  their  strength.  The  shoots  of  the  vertical  cordons 
should  be  inclined  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees. 

Henewal  of  the  Coursons, — We  have  seen  that  in  spite  of 
the  care  which  has  been  taken  to  keep  down  the  spurs  by  an 
Annual  trimming,  to  the  shoot  nearest  the  base,  they  will  always 
increase  a  little  in  length,  and  the  shoot  which  they  bear  will 
diminish  in  vigor  in  proportion  as  they  are  removed  from  the 
point  where  the  spur  or  lateral  branch  is  attached  to  the 
cordon  or  vertical  main  stalk.  In  order  to  remedy  this  incon- 
venience, the  shoots  which  sometimes  grow  at  the  base  of  the 
spurs  are    carefully  preserved,    whatever  may  be  the   age  of 


Pig.  97. 


APPENDIX   II.  361 

the  spurs  from  which  they  spring.  Tlien,  of  the  two  upper 
shoots,  that  which  bore  the  worst  chister  is  suppressed.  The 
following  year  the  spur  is  cut  at  a,  Fig.  97,  and  the  slioot  b 
is  cut  above  the  two  lowest  germs  or  eyes  in  order  to  form  a 
new  courson  or  spur. 

PwEPLAOEMENT  OF  THE  Spfes  (Cotjrsons).— Somctimes  also  cer- 
tain spurs  disappear  entirely  or  are  not  developed  where  they  are 
expected,  and  in  either  case  spaces  are  left  which  it  becomes 
necessary  to  fill.     This  accident  may  be  remedied  by  the  graft. 

Care  of  the  Gkapes. — It  is  in  particular  the  intelligent 
labor  bestowed  upon  the  grapes  from  their  first  appearance  to 
their  maturity  to  which  the  cultivators  of  Thomery  are 
indebted  for  their  success.  The  following  are  the  processes 
adopted : 

Suppression  of  the  Superfluous  Bunches. — Too  large  a 
quantity  of  grapes  upon  the  vine  produces  the  same  result  as  a 
superabundance  of  fruit  upon  other  trees.  A  great  quantity  of 
grapes  are  gathered,  but  the  clusters  and  the  berries  are  small, 
and  the  vines  are  enfeebled  for  the  following  year.  If  the  neces- 
sary retrenchments  are  made,  the  same  result  in  weight  is 
obtained,  and  the  grapes  are  larger,  better  flavored,  and  com- 
mand a  higher  price. 

Thinning  the  Bunches. — "When  the  berries  have  attained  the 
first  stages  of  development,  it  will  be  proper  to  thtn  them. 


362  APPENDIX   II. 

With  a  straight,  pointed  pair  of  scissors  we  cut  from  each 
bunch — first,  all  the  abortive  berries;  and  secondly,  those  in 
the  middle  of  the  bunch,  together  with  some  of  those  which, 
although  on  the  outside,  are  too  much  crowded.  If  the 
bunches  are  very  long,  as  is  often  the  case  with  young  and 
vigorous  vines,  the  point  of  the  bunch  (a,  Fig.  98)  must  also 
be  removed,  since  the  berries  which  it  bears  would  be  slow 
in  ripening.  The  result  of  this  thinning  is,  that,  other  things 
being  equal,  the  grapes  are  ripe  fifteen  days  earlier,  the  berries 
are  a  third  larger,  and  those  intended  to  be  kept  through  the 
winter  will  keep  better. 

The  thinning  practised  at  Thomery  is  performed  by  women, 
and  is  applied  to  at  least  half  the  harvest — that  is  to  say,  500,000 
kilogrammes  of  chasselas. 

Gatheeing  the  Leaves. — At  the  time  when  the  thinning 
takes  place  should  also  be  applied  the  first  e'pampremeiit^  or 
picking  oft'  the  leaves.  At  first  only  the  leaves  turned  toward 
tlie  wall  and  those  more  or  less  broken  or  distorted  are  removed. 
When  the  berries  begin  to  look  transparent,  a  second  epampre- 
ment  takes  place.  A  few  leaves  on  the  front  of  the  vine  are 
then  removed  in  situations  where  the  foliage  is  thick ;  but  the 
leaves  which  shelter  the  branches,  the  para&oU^  are  preserved 
with  care.  Finally,  when  the  berries  are  entirely  cleared,  and 
begin  to '  turn  yellow,  the  leaves  which  shadow  them  are 
removed.  If  they  are  exposed  earlier  the  berries  will  harden 
and  cease  to  increase  in  size.  The  bunches  thus  uncovered  are 
exposed  alternately  to  the  dew  and  the  sun,  by  the  action  of 
which  they  acquire  that  beautiful  pale  yellowish  brown  which 
distinguishes  the  chasselas  of  Thomery. 

Black  grapes  require  particular  care  in  this  respect.  The  first 
removal  of  the  leaves  should  not  take  place  till  the  grapes  are 
completely  colored. 

These  successive  strippings  of  the  leaves  from  the  vine  result 
in  progressively  arresting  the  annual  growth  of  the  vine,  a  long 
time  before  it  would  otherwise  cease.  The  fruit,  therefore, 
sooner  begins  to  mature,  and  wiD  be  completely  r|pe  by  the  first 
cold  weather. 


APPENDIX   II.  363 

Protections. — The  very  projecting  copings  which  we  have 
recommended  for  trellised  vines  are  insufficient,  if  the  wall  ia 
more  than  80  inches  high,  to  protect  the  grapes  from  the  damp- 
ness of  the  atmosphere.  It  will  then  he  advisable  to  place  a 
movable  pent-house  at  about  half  the  height  of  the  wall  after 
the  last  gathering  of  the  leaves  in  the  middle  of  September. 
This  pent-house  should  project  about  20  inches. 

Annular  Incision. — Eefer  to  page  234  for  the  description  of 
this  operation,  intended  to  hasten  fifteen  days  the  ripening  of  the 
grape,  and  which  will  increase  also  fully  a  third  the  size  of  the 
berry. 

Renewal  of  the  Trellised  Yink. — The  trellised  vine, 
attended  in  the  manner  we  have  described,  will  bear  fruit  for 
more  than  fifty  years.  But  there  comes  a  time  when  the  suc- 
cessive renewal  of  the  spurs  produces  upon  them  so  many 
knots  that  the  circulation  of  the  sap  is  interrupted.  The  vege- 
tation becomes  languishing,  many  of  the  coursons  wither,  and 
the  vertical  stems  themselves  finally  perish.  When  this  state 
of  decrepitude  first  manifests  itself,  the  cultivator  proceeds  to 
the  renewal  of  the  vine.  All  the  vertical  stalks  are  cut  at  about 
8  inches  above  the  soil  (Fig.  99).  This  trimming  concentres  the 
action  of  the  sap  upon  this  point,  and  so  develops  a  certain 
number  of  shoots.  During  the  summer  the  most  vigorous  are 
chosen  and  the  others  removed.  The  following  year  the 
reserved  shoot  is  cut  above  the  third  bud,  and  the  same  care 
before  described  is  applied  to  the  three  resulting  shoots.  Then 
the  process  is  continued  as  for  the  establishment  of  a  younr 
vine.  To  assure  its  success,  it  is  well  to  remove,  from  the  time 
when  the  shoots  are  suppressed,  as  much  earth  as  possible  from 
the  foot  of  the  trellis  without  injuring  the  roots  of  the  vine,  and 
we  should  apply  abundance  of  manure,  which  should  be  covered 
with  a  bed  of  new  earth  nearly  equal  in  thickness  to  tliat 
removed.  When  the  trellis  to  be  renewed  is  in  a  state  of 
advanced  decrepitude,  and  when  a  certain  number  of  vertical 
stalks  are  completely  withered,  and  the  regularity  of  the  whole 
is  lost,  we  proceed  in  a  ditterent  manner.  Each  vertical  stem 
is  cut  off,  as  we  have  said,  above,  and  those  which  are  dead 


364 


APPENDIX    II. 


Fig.  99. 

removed.  During  the  summer  the  two  most  vigorous  shoots  on 
each  vertical  stalk  are  preserved,  and  they  are  allowed  to  grow 
to  the  top  of  the  wall.  The  following  year  there  is  taken  away 
from  the  foot  of  the  trellis  as  much  earth  as  possible,  about 
16  inches,  taking  care  not  to  harm  the  old  roots.  The  earth  is 
hollowed  out,  completely  as  it  were  isolating  the  base  of  each 
vertical  stalk.  Then  they  are  laid  at  the  base  of  the  trellis  pre-- 
viously  arranged  for  their  reception.     As  each  one  leaves  two 


APPENDIX   II.  365 

shoots,  and  as  this  number  is  more  than  sufficient  to  furnish  the 
required  number  of  vertical  stalks,  we  preserve  only  the  proper 
number,  choosing  the  most  vigorous  for  our  purpose.  These 
stalks  and  shoots  are  finally  extended  on  the  ground  by  means 
of  wooden  hooks,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  new  shoot  directed 
toward  the  wall  leaves  the  ground  at  exactly  that  point  where 
the  new  vertical  stalk  should  rise.  A  bed  of  manure,  3  inches 
in  thickness,  is  then  spread,  and  the  rest  of  the  hollow  is  filled 
with  new  earth.  All  these  vertical  stalks  will  develop  with 
exceeding  vigor  during  the  year,  and  will  then  be  managed  like 
those  of  a  new  plantation.  We  saw  thus  renewed,  in  1848,  a 
trellis  more  than  eighty  years  old,  belonging  to  M.  Rose  Char- 
meux.  The  operation  was  attended  with  no  difficulty,  and  its 
success  was  complete. 

It  will  readily  be  perceived  that  by  the  aid  of  this  renewing 
process  the  duration  of  the  trellised  vines  is  almost  indefinite, 
and  it  will  seldom  be  necessary  to  replant.  The  cultivators  of 
Thomery  h-ave  a  proverb,  "  He  who  plants  an  espalier  is  not 
there  to  take  it  away."  This  mode  of  a  renewal  may  be  applied 
to  an  old  trellis  more  or  less  regularly  disposed  in  horizontal 
cordons,  which  it  may  be  desirable  to  replace  by  vertical  ones. 
The  process  in  such  a  case  is  as  follows : 

In  the  spring  each  cordon  is  cut  immediately  above  the  spur 
(courson)  nearest  the  base  (Fig.  100).     During  the  summer  two 


Kg.  100. 


shoots  are  preserved  upon  each  spur  and  allowed  to  grow  freely. 
The  following  year  the  gr<^und  at  the  foot  of  the  trellis  is  dug 


366  APPENDIX    II. 

out  as  we  have  explained.  Then  the  foot  of  each  vertical  stem 
is  deeply  laid  bare  and  laid  down  horizontally  so  that  the 
extremities  of  the  shoots  are  connected  to  the  foot  of  the  wall 
at  each  of  those  parts  were  it  is  intended  they  shall  form  new 
vertical  stems.  The  rest  of  the  process  is  conducted  in  the 
manner  already  described. 


OULTUKE    OF   TABLE    GRAPES    IN    THE    OPEN    AIR 
(Plein  Vent). 

The  table  grape  is  also  cultivated  in  the  open  air,*  but  the 
climate  of  Paris  is  the  extreme  limit  of  this  culture.  The 
vines  are  arranged  upon  espalier  and  then  managed  as  before 
described.  They  are  even  sometimes  trained  upon  poles  or 
stumps,  and  the  method  pursued  is  then  the  same  as  for  the 
ordinary  vineyard. 

At  Thomery  the  interval  which  separates  each  inclosure  is 
used  in  the  following  manner :  Espaliers  are  established 
parallel  to  the  walls.  The  first  is  at  80  inches'  distance,  and 
the  others  are  separated  by  an  interval  of  8  ft.  6  in.  These 
espaliers  are  sustained  by  a  trellis  similar  to  that  on  the 
wall.  They  are  supported  on  wooden  posts,  or,  as  is  better,  on 
those  of  schistose  stone,  analogous  to  slate.  These  posts  are 
placed  at  a  distance  of  5  ft.  4  in.  one  from  the  other.  Some- 
times for  these  posts  are  substituted  iron  uprights  fixed  in 
prisms  of  sandstone  placed  in  the  ground.  In  this  case  the 
wooden  cross-pieces  may  be  replaced  by  lines  of  iron  wire 
which  pass  across  the  uprights.  The  main  stems  of  the  vine 
form  upon  this  frame  a  series  of  little  vertical  cordons  like 
those  just  described.  These  espaliers  are,  moreover,  planted 
with  the  same  care  as  the  trellised  vines,  and  are  treated  in  the 
same  manner. 

The  interval  of  8  ft.  6  in.  which  separates  each  espalier 
is  occupied  by  a  row  of  vines  on  poles,  propped  up  as  in  the 

*  "  OpeD  air  "  is  here  used  not  in  contradistinction  to  vines  protected  by  glass, 
but  those  simply  protected  by  walls  and  copings  as  just  described. 


APPENDIX  n.  367 

ordinary  vineyard,  and  subjected  to  the  same  method  of  cultiva- 
tion. These  poles,  separated  by  an  interval  of  53  inches,  rise  to 
a  height  of  13  inches  above  the  soil,  so  that  the  rain  may  not 
cover  the  grapes  with  mud. 

In  the  same  climate,  the  same  variety  of  grape  supported  on 
a  pole  is  always  inferior  to  that  cultivated  upon  a  wall.  The 
grapes  from  the  pole  vines  are  always  worse  than  those  from 
the  contre  espalier. 

The  earliest  varieties  only  should  be  cultivated  in  this  man- 
ner, since  the  temperature  of  the  contre  espaliers  is  alw^ays 
lower  than  that  of  the  espaliers. 

CULTUEE  OF  TABlE  GKAPES  IN  SOUTHERN  FRANCE. 

In  the  south  of  France  the  greater  warmth  and  dryness  of  the 
climate  hastens  to  a  great  extent  the  annual  vegetation  of  the 
vine,  and  the  ripening  of  the  fruit  is  accomplished  without  its 
being  necessary  to  increase  the  warmth  of  the  atmosphere  arti- 
ficially, or  to  moderate  and  even  to  arrest  the  growth  of  the 
vines.  Hence  the  vine  grows  most  vigorously  and  the  choice 
varieties  of  table  grapes  which  are  native  to  these  regions  have 
a  much  greater  development  than  those  which  belong  to  the 
centre  and  north  of  France.  Finally,  these  varieties  require 
less  pruning  in  order  to  produce  grapes.  These  different  con- 
siderations give  rise  to  the  following  modifications  in  processes 
of  grape  culture  for  those  regions. 

First.  The  vine  should  be  placed  on  espaliers,  single  or 
double,  the  supports  of  which  should  be  like  those  already 
described.  In  aU  cases  the  walls  of  the  garden  which  have  the 
warmest  exposure  should  be  devoted  to  the  vine,  and  for  these 
walls  should  be  selected  the  latest  varieties. 

Second,  The  vines  should  be  planted  before  winter,  as  if 
planted  later  they  suffer  much  from  the  dryness  of  the  spring. 

Third.  As  the  vine  grows  with  much  more  strength  in  the 
south  than  in  the  north  of  France,  whether  on  account  of  the 
climate,  or  the  nature  of  the  varieties  peculiar  to  that  region,  it 
is  necessary  that  they  should  be  planted  at  a  greater  distance 


368  APPENDIX  n. 

one  from  the  other.  For  the  vertical  cordons,  with  opposite 
lateral  shoots,  it  will  be  proper  to  leave  an  interval  of  24  inches 
between  each  cordon  instead  of  14. 

Fourth.  The  coursons  of  those  varieties  analogous  to  the  chas- 
Belas,  on  account  of  their  strength  are  cut  so  as  to  leave  two 
buds  as  we  have  explained,  but  all  those  which  grow  with  more 
strength  are  cut  so  as  to  leave  tliree  buds. 

Fifth.  The  operation  of  thinning  the  clusters  is  as  efficacious 
in  the  south  as  in  the  north,  but  removing  the  leaves  would  be 
much  more  injurious  than  beneficial.  Onlj  the  leaves  which 
cover  the  clusters  are  to  be  taken  off,  and  those  only  at  the  time 
when  the  grapes  are  perfectly  transparent. 

Sixth.  The  vine  in  the  south  being  stronger  than  in  the  north, 
a  third  more  clusters  than  the  amount  previously  specified  are 
allowed  to  remain  upon  the  vine. 

Diseases  of  the  Vine — Debtrfgtive  Aotqials  akd  Insects. 
— ^The  diseases  of  the  vine  have  been  already  referred  to,  and 
we  will  confine  ourselves  at  present  to  the  consideration  of  the 
destructive  animals  and  insects,  which  especially  attack  the 
trellised  vine. 

Birds,  and  particularly  sparrows,  thrushes,  grossbeaks  and 
black-birds  are  the  great  enemies  of  the  trellised  vine.  When 
these  birds  do  not  fly  in  large  flocks  and  descend  in  great  numbers 
upon  one  place,  they  occasion  little  mischief,  and  the  cultivators 
of  Thomery  adopt  no  precaution  against  them.  Nets  undoubt- 
edly would  be  a  good  defence,  but  their  price  prevents  their 
being  employed  over  a  large  surface. 

M.  Orbelin,  of  St.  Maur,  near  Paris,  has  contrived,  as  a 
defence  against  birds,  little  mirrors  with  a  double  face,  of  a  very 
moderate  price,  and  the  result,  up  to  the  present  time,  has  been 
very  satisfactory.  In  the  spring  the  first  young  shoots  are 
often  devoured  by  snails  or  slugs.  Their  size,  their  slow  pro- 
gress, and  their  habit  of  taking  refuge  in  the  chinks  of  the  wall 
or  behind  the  trellis,  and  of  coming  out  in  the  morning  or 
during  the  rain  renders  their  destruction  easy. 

The  Icerynes,  known  also  under  the  name  of  gall  insect,  be- 
longs to  the  genus  coccus^  and  particularly  attacks  the  peach 


APPENDIX   II. 


369 


and  the  vine.     When  it  has  acquired  complete  development 
toward  the  end  of  May,  it  presents  the  following  appearance  : 
The  male  (a,  Fig.  101)  appears  in  the  form  of  a  little  raultipede 


Fig.  101. 

or  -woodlouse  covered  with  white  dust.  The  lemaie  appears 
like  a  little  brown  shell,  b,  adhering  verj  firmly  to  the  branches 
of  the  trees.  About  this  time  the  males  impregnate  the  females 
and  die.     The  females  lay  their  eggs  directly,  and  the  eggs 

16* 


370 


APPENDIX    n. 


remain  surrounded  with  a  little  mass  of  white  down,  and  cov- 
ered with  the  dried  body  of  the  female,  who  expires  as  soon  as 
thej  are  deposited.  These  eggs  hatch  rapidly,  and  the  insects 
issue  from  the  shell  which  covers  them,  toward  the  end  of  June, 
to  the  number  of  more  than  a  thousand.  Hardly  visible  to  the 
naked  eye,  they  spread  themselves  over  the  surface  of  the 
leaves  and  young  shoots,  and  destroy  them  by  piercing  their 
epidermis  and  absorbing  their  fluids. 

Toward  the  month  of  N'o vember,  •  when  the  leaves  fall,  the 
kermes  abandon  them  and  fix  themselves  on  the  branches, 
choosing  in  preference,  where  the  trees  are  en  espalier^  the  side 
next  the  wall,  where  they  remain  torpid  through  the  winter, 
appearing  like  little  brown  stains.  In  the  month  of  April  they 
change  their  skins,  rapidly  increase  in  size,  and  give  birth  to  a 
new  generation. 

The  measure- worm  is  the  larva  of  a  moth,  which  in  the 
spring  gfeatly  injures  the  vine  by  devouring  the  young  shoots 
as  they  are  put  forth.  It  is  difficult  to  find  it,  as  it  has  the 
form  and  color  of  a  little  dried  stick.  It  carries  on  its  ravages 
during  the  night,  and  it  is  then  that  the  cultivators  of  Thomery, 
armed  with  lanterns,  seek  it  out  and  destroy  it. 

Gatheeing  and  Peeservation — Feesh  Grapes. — The  grapes 
should  be  gathered  only  when  perfectly  ripe.     The  longer  the 


Fig.  102. 


APPENDIX   II.  371 

vintage  is  delayed  in  the  centre  and  north  of  France,  the  higher 
is  the  flavor  of  the  grape.  The  first  frosts  of  autumn,  to  which 
it  is  very  sensitive,  should  however  be  anticipated.  The  gather- 
ing should  take  place  in  a  dry  time.  Each  cluster  should  be 
taken  by  the  stem,  and  detached  by  means  of  the  pruning 
shears. 

As  the  grapes  are  gathered  they  are  deposited  in  little  bas- 
kets lined  with  vine  leaves  and  fern.  These  baskets  are 
arranged  on  what  is  called  a  crotchet,  or  sort  of  hod,  shown  in 
Fig.  102,  which  can  be  carried  by  one  man  to  the  storehouse,  or 
to  the  place  where  the  grapes  are  packed  for  market. 

The  following  is  the  manner  employed  each  year  in  the  pre- 
servation of  a  great  quantity  of  grapes  by  the  cultivators  of 
Thomery : 

First,  a  certain  portion  is  retained  on  the  trellis  to  the  latest 
possible  moment.  They  choose  the  clusters  from  the  two  upper 
cordons  of  the  walls  having  a  southern  exposure.  These  grapes 
are  the  least  watery,  and  consequently  the  least  susceptible  to 
cold.  They  guard  them  by  sheltering  them  with  leaves  of 
fern,  and  even  with  straw  matting,  and  thus  preserve  them 
until  Christmas.  The  grapes  which  they  wish  to  preserve  still 
later  they  treat  in  the  following  manner :  Those  which  they 
wish  to  retain  till  May  are  chosen  from  the  poles,  or  the  coun- 
ter espaliers.  The  bunches  are  taken  which  have  been  subjected 
to  the  thinning  process  and  which  are  formed  of  the  largest  and 
least  crowded  berries.  They  are  cut  a  little  before  they  are 
completely  ripe — that  is  to  say,  from  the  25th  of  September  to 
the  15th  of  October.  The  grapes  intended  to  be  kept  only  till 
March,  may  be  taken  from  the  espaliers,  and  are  gathered  from 
the  1st  to  the  15th  of  November. 

The  place  where  the  grapes  are  kept  is  generally  some  room 
or  building  connected  with  the  house,  and  especially  devoted  to 
this  use.  Shelves  about  30  inches  wide,  placed  one  over  the 
other,  cover  the  walls  from  floor  to  ceiling.  In  the  middle  of 
the  room,  and  30  inches  distant  from  the  lateral  shelves,  ano- 
ther series  of  shelves  rises  to  the  ceiling.  These  shelves  are 
composed  of  a  frame  of  wood  filled  up  with  a  grating  of  iron 


\ 


372  APPENDIX    II. 

wire.  It  is  upon  this  grating,  which  is  covered  by  a  slight 
layer  of  very  dry  straw,  that  the  grapes  are  spread.  They 
should  often  be  inspected,  and  the  berries  which  begin  to  decay 
should  be  removed  by  the  scissors. 

A  storehouse  on  this  plan  presents  the  following  inconve- 
niences. Heat  must  often  be  introduced  in  order  to  defend  it 
from  the  winter's  cold,  and  the  result  is  an  injurious  change  of 
temperature.  On  the  other  side,  the  accumulation  of  moisture 
makes  it  necessary  that  it  should  be  aired  from  time  to  time, 
and  produces  the  same  result  in  an  inverse  mode.  Finally,  if 
the  currents  of  air  produced  by  this  ventilation  are  too  great, 
the  grape  dries,  shrivels,  and  loses,  if  not  its  quality,  at  least 
its  commercial  value.  We  think,  then,  that  it  is  better  to  use 
the  storehouse  a  description  of  which  the  reader  will  find  at 
page  685  of  the  second  part  of  this  work.  It  will  be  necessary 
but  to  change  the  arrangement  of  the  shelves,  and  also  to  use 
chloride  of  calcium  with  precaution,  for  fear  of  shrivelling  the 
grapes.* 

When  it  is  necessary  to  preserve  only  a  small  quantity  of 
grapes,  the  same  storehouse  will  serve  at  once  for  grapes  and 


*  The  reference  here  is  to  the  "  Cours  Elementaire  d'AboricuIture,"  from  which 
the  present  account  of  the  Thomery  sj' stem  is  translated.  M.  Du  Breuil  there  gives  a 
very  full  and  accurate  description  of  a  room  or  house  for  preserving  fruit  of  all 
kinds  ;  the  principal  features  of  which  are  the  provision  of  means  whereby  the 
fruit  is  kept  at  an  equable  temperature,  free  from  all  pressure  produced  by  the 
fruits  pressing  upon  each  other,  and  free  from  dampness.  The  latter  point  is 
attained  by  keeping  a  vessel  of  chloride  of  calcium  in  the  house — a  substance 
which  must  not  be  confounded  with  chloride  of  Ihne^  which  would  quickly  destroy 
the  fruit.  This  caution  is  not  unnecessary,  as  it  is  only  a  few  years  since  a  writer 
in  the  "  Horticulturist  "  recommended  chloride  of  lime  for  the  purpose  ;  having,  no 
doubt,  used  this  term  under  the  impression  that  it  was  simpler  than  the  word  cal- 
cium. Chloride  of  calcium  may  be  purchased  cheaply,  or  it  may  be  made  by  dia- 
solving  chalk  or  lime  in  hydrochloric  acid.  It  must  be  evaporated  to  dryness,  and 
calcined  at  a  red  heat ;  after  it  has  become  moist  by  exposure  to  the  air  in  the 
fruit  room,  it  loses  its  power  of  absorbing  moisture,  and  must  be  again  dried  and 
calcined,  but  after  undergoing  this  process  it  is  as  good  as  new.  Most  cellars  in 
American  dwellings  maintain  averyequabli  temperature  during  winter,  and  it 
has  occurred  to  us,  that  a  small  wooden  press,  made  air  tight,  shelved  and  kept 
dry  by  means  of  chloride  of  calcium,  would  form  no  bad  substitute  for  Du  Breuil'B 
"  Frulterie."    We  hope  to  try  it  next  season. 


APPENDIX   n. 


373 


other  fruits.  The  grapes  should  then  be  spread  on  shelves  by 
themselves,  or  can  be  arranged  in  the  following  manner,  which 
has  the  advantage  of  economy  of  space.  Each  bunch  should 
De  suspended  by  the  point  on  a  little  hook  of  iron  wire  in  the 


Pig.  108. 

form  of  an  S  (Fig.  103).     Thus  attached,  they  will  be  less  liable 
to  decay,  because  the  berries  will  have  a  tendency  to  fall  apart 


fig.  104. 


374  APPENDIX   II. 

from  each  other.  The  bunches  are  then  suspended  by  the  upper 
hook  of  the  S,  around  hoops  hung  one  over  the  other  (Fig.  104), 
and  themselves  suspended  from  the  ceiling  of  the  room,  and 
moved  up  and  down  by  little  pulleys.  If  we  should  wish  to  pre- 
serve a  larger  quantity  of  grapes,  we  may,  for  the  sake  of 
economizing  space,  substitute  for  the  hoops  wooden  frames  in 


Pig.  105. 

the  form  of  sashes,  as  shown  in  Fig.  105.  These  sashes  are 
furnished  with  rods,  seprarated  from  each  other  by  an  interval 
of  4  inches,  and  having  on  one  side  little  points  intended  to 
receive  the  hooks  by  which  the  clusters  are  suspended.  These 
sashes  are  hung  from  the  ceiling  in  such  a  manner  as  to  fill  the 
entire  space,  and  like  the  hoops,  move  up  and  down.  However, 
the  grapes  thus  preserved  wither  and  lose  more  of  their  quality 
than  those  preserved  upon  shelves. 

Dried  Grapes — Raisins. — The  large  proportion  of  saccharine 
principle  which  the  grapes  of  the  south  generally  contain,  ren- 
ders it  e^sy  to  dry  and  preserve  them.  They  have  thus  become 
the  object  of  special  attention  and  considerable  commerce  for 
some  countries  in  the  south  of  Europe  where  are  cultivated  the 
varieties  best  adapted  to  this  purpose.  We  have  noted  the  mosti 
desirable  of  these  varieties  in  our  list.    Malaga,  Calabria,  Egypt, 


APPENDIX   II.  375 

and  Eoquevaire  in  Provence  are  the  principal  places  devoted  to 
this  culture.  Zante  in  particular  is  distinguished  for  the  Corinth 
grape,  or  currant. 

The  process  most  commonly  employed  for  the  preparation  of 
raisins  is  the  following :  j 

When  the  fruit  approaches  maturity,  the  stem  of  the  bunch  ia 
twisted,  and  the  leaves  are  removed  in  part  from  the  branch  in 
order  to  expose  the  grapes  to  the  influence  of  the  sun's  rays,  in 
order  to  favor  the  action  of  the  essential  principles  and  diminish 
the  superfluous  moisture.  The  grapes  are  gathered  at  the 
proper  time,  and  the  spoiled  berries  are  carefully  removed. 

After  which  the  clusters  are  left  upon  hurdles  exposed  to  the 
sun  for  one  day.  The  next  day  a  boiling  ley  is  prepared  from 
the  ashes  of  the  burnt  vine  cuttings,  to  which  are  added  some 
handfuls  of  lavender,  rosemary  or  other  aromatic  herbs.  A 
bunch  is  plunged  three  times  in  succession  into  this  ley.  If  the 
berries  are  slightly  cracked,  the  ley  is  strong  enough,  but  if 
they  are  much  cracked,  it  is  too  strong.  When  it  is  properly 
prepared  it  is  allowed  to  cool  and  settle ;  it  is  then  strained 
through  a  linen  cloth  and  a  second  time  placed  over  the  fire. 
When  it  boils,  each  bunch  is  dipped  into  it  three  times  in  suc- 
cession. They  are  then  spread  on  the  hurdles,  which  are 
exposed  to  the  sun  during  the  day  and  taken  into  the  house  at 
night.  The  raisins  are  commonly  completely  dried  at  the  end 
of  two  or  three  days. 

The  Zante  grapes  undergo  a  different  treatment.  They  are 
cut  some  days  after  they  have  attained  their  complete  matu- 
rity. They  are  deposited  on  hurdles  very  close  together,  or  on 
cloths  placed  in  the  full  sun.  When  the  berries  preserving  the 
pedicle  begin  to  be  detached  from  the  main  stalk,  they  are 
lightly  beaten  with  little  sticks,  in  order  to  hasten  this  result. 
They  are  then  passed  through  a  sieve  in  order  to  separate  them 
from  the  stems,  and  lastly  subjected  to  the  action  of  a  fan  or 
winnowing  machine,  in  order  to  remove  the  dust  and  rubbish. 


